Citation: Signorielli, Nancy, and Aaron Bacue. “Recognition and Respect: A Content Analysis of Prime-Time Television Characters Across Three Decades.” Sex Roles, vol. 40, no. 7, 1999, pp. 527-544. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/225370372?accountid=11107.

This source is a content analysis of prime-time television show of the United States across 3 decades from the 1960s to the 1990s. The source finds out that over the 3 decades, women have been receiving much less recognition on television than man. However, the number of women in television shows have also generally been on the rise from the 1960s to 1990s, although till 1990s they are still considerably under-represented in relation the percentage on the US population is female. Furthermore, the source also explores how the change of society, such as social norms, where and how people lived, how television is viewed, and social ideology affects how often are women represented in television shows. The source provides a with sets of quantitative data on the screen time and number of women in television shows in the second half of the century. This contributes towards a part of the historic changes of women in television that we would be analyzing in our research.

Citation: Ezzedeen, Souha R. “Portrayals of Career Women in Hollywood Films: Implications for the Glass ceiling’s Persistence.” Gender in Management, vol. 30, no. 3, 2015, pp. 239-264. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/2085700476?accountid=11107, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/GM-07-2013-0073.

This research paper investigates the negative and stereotypical depiction of women on screen, especially films. It explores how 165 career women are depicted in 137 different films, and the overall context of the film while looking into how females are positively or negatively portrayed in their personal and professional characteristics.  The study also draws on research on stereotypes to study how the portrayal of women in stereotypical rolls might undermine women’s career aspiration. While also looking into how stereotypical views contributes to the persistence of the glass ceiling. The researchers found that the career women in shows are often portrayed with negative characteristics such as mean, failures at intimacy, isolation inability to balance work and family and conniving personalities. The research provides us with an in-depth analysis towards the how career women are being stereotyped in movies while also the correlation between their negative portrayal, social context and effect. Such results can be generalized towards our topic of interest – television shows as they share a similar context and medium.

Citation: Press, Andrea, and Terry Strathman. “Work, Family and Social Class in Television Images of Women: Prime-Time Television and the Construction of Postfeminism.” Women and Language, vol. 16, no. 2, 1993, pp. 7. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/198874239?accountid=11107

This source argues how women are being presented in television shows have been hugely affected and led by the development of feminist movement in the United States. The paper looks into the changes of US culture due to feminism movement which further affects how women are being portrayed in television shows. For example, it analyses how women’s work family and interrelationships have been affected by successive feminism movements. It also looks into how women are being addressed in the show, how the noun/name used by characters have been evolving over time. Another aspect the research looks into is how such changes by television towards how women are presented have positively affected how women are being viewed and subsequently respected in society, as well as the negative effects negative portrayal of women causes. This source can provide us with analyses on how women are being portrayed in television and the effect it causes. It can help us better understand how the topic of our research causes an impact to society as a whole and how changes in culture affect how female are presented in television shows and how this affects culture.

Citation: Press, Andrea. “Gender and Family in Television’s Golden Age and Beyond.”Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 625, no. 1, 2009, pp. 139-150. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1928619212?accountid=11107, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716209337886.

This paper argues how women’s role in television shows have been changing through the golden era of television. The research focuses on how women who have been confined to home and family settings in early television, how working women have gradually increased during the 1960s and 1970s, and how they have become more liberalised in television shows since the 1990s. The paper also investigates what caused the change of women roles in television and how the changes came to be. It suggests that the increase of women who worked during the 60s and 70s can be attributed to the number of women on television shows with non-traditional family lives. While the arrival of the post-network era and trends of postfeminist might have resulted in more liberal women in shows on one end while also contributed to the sense of yearning for love and family of women in other shows. This source provides a broader view of how women in television shows have been affected by society, while it also offers different aspect these changes have brought along, sometimes in entirely different directions. This can also provide us with a basis for our explanation of any conclusion we might make.

Citation: “TV Statistics.” Women and Hollywood, womenandhollywood.com/resources/statistics/tv-statistics/.

This source provides the quantitative overview of female characters in television from 2012 to 2018, allowing us to compare how different statistics have been changing over this period of time. For example, the percentage of female characters have been relatively the same for this period of time although female only comprised of 40% of all speaking characters which is slightly lower than the 42% in 2012. Furthermore, the number points out that male characters are still more likely than female character to be seen at work and could more often be identified by their occupational status. While female characters are still more likely than male characters to act as personal life-oriented roles such as mother and wife. In contrast, males are more often portrayed in work-oriented and powerful roles, such as business executives and managers. This source provides us with plentiful of data regarding how the number and makeup of women on television have been changing over the past 8 years. The data provided would also allow us to draw comparisons between female and male in different roles and how it is affected by other factors such as the composition of production groups.

Citation: Otterson, Joe, and Daniel Holloway. “Networks Bet Big on Female-Driven Pilots, but How Many Will Make It to Series?” Variety, Variety, 6 Feb. 2018, variety.com/2018/tv/news/networks-female-driven-pilots-1202687730/.

This source is an article from Variety.com explores how the number of shows with female leads, writers and executive producers have been increasing and reaching a high point for shows in 2018. It points out that in the television shows that have been aired or are going to be broadcasted in 2018 by the major platforms, about 35% to 40% of them were from female writer-executive producers and 50% have a female lead or co-lead characters. However, the source questions whether female-driven plots can stand the test of time, arguing that although female may be appearing in more positions in a television show when it comes to the TV series in the long term, female-driven shows might only be something of a short term. After the tide has passed, the television arena might just return back to a male-dominated one. It argues that change in the number of females taking up leading roles doesn’t mean much; instead, real change within the society and entertainment industry must be achieved in or to secure gender equality in television. This source provides us with an alternative towards what the numbers in our research mean, while allowing further analyses and caution us towards how the trends should be viewed.

Benoit, Sophia. “Women in Comedy: Why We Must Not Let Funny Become ‘the New Hot’.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 17 Nov. 2015, www.theguardian.com/culture/2015/nov/17/women-in-comedy-funny-hot-attractiveness.

In this article, the author, Sophia Benoit discusses the relationship between being a female comedian and attractiveness. She claims that in the comedy world, in order to be a successful female comedian, one must be attractive and, specifically, “hot”. She states, however, that in the world of comedy, there is no place for judging women based on their attractiveness–not simply because it shouldn’t be done anywhere but also because it makes the overall quality of the comedy worse. When people watch comedy, they are not thinking about how ugly or pretty the comedian is but more so how funny the jokes are. Furthermore, these jokes are generally self deprecating and shine the comedian in a light that is more unattractive if anything. Ultimately, she claims that standards for women in comedy should be the same as those for men for both moral and practical reasons. This piece is valuable because it highlights an issue that many women face in a field because of their gender and argues why it should not exist. It helps bring attention to a concern female comedians are forced to have to be successful and, in doing so, helps eradicate it.  

O, The Oprah Magazine. “An Open Letter To People Who Think Women Aren’t Funny.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 3 May 2017, www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/an-open-letter-to-people-who-think-women-arent-funny_us_59075a96e4b02655f83ec973.

In this article, the author describes her journey to success as a comedian and how embracing her femininity did not affect her success. In the beginning of her career, she was told that she should always wear bland clothing on stage to not distract men in the audience. She always wore jeans (never skirts or shorts), loose shirts, and, at times even, a vest over. Her jokes always stayed clear from funny date stories, periods, or other topics women could relate to to avoid retribution. As she became more established, however, she did not think that the audience would begin to reject her if she wore more revealing and stylish clothing or added some topics into her shows that women could relate to. Once she made changes to her style on stage, she realized that abiding by the old rules were not necessary in order to succeed. This article is meaningful because it shows how a woman stressed and took unnecessary precaution in her early career to downplay and conceal her femininity. It shows that despite her choice of style or specific comedy topic, the fact that she could make people laugh mattered most and led to her success.

Vagianos, Alanna. “Music Festivals Have A Glaring Woman Problem. Here’s Why.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, data.huffingtonpost.com/music-festivals.

This article discusses the huge gender imbalance present in the lineups of major music festivals. In most of the major music festivals, over 60-70% of the artists are male or all male groups and only 15-20% are groups with females in them. In addition to the huge imbalance of representative artists, the men groups generally get paid much more than women. They are able to get paid more because different artists have different fees that they charge the festival so that they will perform. Festivals, however, are evidently willing to pay men artists more than women artists. This article holds value because it calls out the huge gender imbalance in the music festival world that many people continue to fund without knowing all the facts. It brings attention to an issue few know about and helps make known that gender inequality is an issue that famous artists have to deal with as well, not just ordinary civilians.

Baehr, Helen. “The ‘liberated woman’ in television drama”. Women’s Studies International Quarterly, Version 3, Issue 1, 2010, 15 pages, ScienceDirect.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148068580925506

This paper explores the concept of a “liberated woman” on modern television dramas. It states that the modern media and television is responsible for shaping much of the public’s thoughts and opinions. In the past, television rarely used women as stars of the show or as the main protagonists (unless it was with the crucial help from a man). More and more modern television shows, however, have been starring females as protagonists who save themselves. The “liberated woman” on the screen is a woman who faces a great variety of challenges and common problems and surmounts them on her own. She does not use men, or anyone else as a crutch. That is not to say that she has faults or stumbles at times, but she ultimately surmounts whatever challenge confront her because of her own strength. This article is valuable because it discusses a progressive trend in current tv shows that plays a significant role in promoting feminism. It highlights a new role on television that woman have rarely filled in the past but will begin to in the present and future.

Harrison, Kristen. “Television Viewers’ Ideal Body Proportions: The Case of the Curvaceously Thin Woman”. Sex Roles, Volume 48, Issue 5, March 2003, 255-264, Springer Link

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022825421647

This article discusses the effect that seeing the “ideal female body” on television has on women’s perceptions of themselves. It found that overall, due to high levels of exposure to one specific body type on television, women are disposed to wanting smaller waists. Women with smaller busts want larger busts and the opposite is true for women with larger busts. Exposure to a single female body type on television has also led to many women being more open to using plastic surgery to change their bodies to match their ideal. This article is significant because it explores how women view themselves as an effect of what they see on the screen. It explores what women’s perception of a good body are and how the media shapes this perception. It helps bring attention to the fact that media significantly alters people’s opinions of how they look themselves and calls attention to the fact that it would be a good idea to show all body types on the screen so that people would be more comfortable with themselves.

Shartiely, Eric. “The Portrayal of the Tanzanian Woman in television commercials: is she a piece of soap, a house, or gold?”. Dept of Oriental and African Languages, Goteborg University Africa and Asia, No 5, 2005, 108-141

https://sprak.gu.se/digitalAssets/1307/1307695_shartiely-the-portrayal.pdf

In this paper, the author analyzes the portrayal of Tanzanian women in television commercials and other advertisements. She claims that in Tanzania, the commercials reflect the social reality of the area. Women are generally seen as rewards that men should have instead of as their own individuals. They are seen as dependent upon men and who must focus on pleasing men. This is reflected the subservient positions that women are often filling in commercials. They are never the main lead or focus but always off to the side, helping the main male advertiser hold or sell a products as he does all of the talking. This article is important because it shows a parallel between American gender inequality and that of another, less developed country. It conveys that both countries have a similar gender issue. By highlighting similarities between the two, it is easier to understand the issues in each country individually.

Cann, David J., and Philip B. Mohr. “Journalist and Source Gender in Australian Television News.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 45, no. 1, 2001, pp. 162-174. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/227290751?accountid=11107.

Cann and Mohr discuss how the equality seemingly present in news stations of their day is really only surface level. They discuss how many stations have altered their hiring practices to become more equal, hiring equal proportions of male and female reporters, but in reality inequality is still rampant. Specifically, inequality still exists within the type of story male and female reporters are assigned. According to their study, male reporters receive gut wrenching, new stories whereas female reporters receive day-to-day news. The paper argues this is because men are seen as more capable than women. This peer-reviewed source is worth reading because it deeply explores inequalities in news stories using statistical analysis. It gives an in-depth analysis of an issue relating to my group’s topic which can help us frame own question and research. This source is also interesting to look at because it gives an international perspective.

Glascock, Jack. “Gender Roles on Prime-Time Network Television: Demographics and Behaviors.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 45, no. 4, 2001, pp. 656-669. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/227286652?accountid=11107.

In this peer-reviewed study Glascock compares the portrayal of women and men on television using a variety of factors. Glascock employs a detailed statistical analysis of the 1996 Fox TV season. He argues that television was trending towards more female characters, but males still outnumbered them especially behind the scenes. Glascock points out that having more females behind the scenes of shows would likely increase the number of female characters. In addition, it is pointed out that women are often portrayed in lower paying jobs, and they are also often dressed provocatively. This source is useful because it gives an incredibly detailed insight to gender dynamics on television in the late 90s. This can be used to compare television of that era to that of today. This paper can also be used because of its detailed discussion about how women worked behind the scenes on television. The gender dynamics of today can be easily compared to those of the later 90s.

Mudrick, Michael, and Carolyn A. Lin. “Looking on from the Sideline: Perceived Role Congruity of Women Sports Journalists.” Journal of Sports Media, vol. 12, no. 2, 2017, pp. 79-101. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1966844219?accountid=11107.

In this study Mudrick and Lin discuss how people perceive female sports reporters. First, they introduce how few female sports reporters there are as well as the idea that people tend to shame women who do more “manly” activities. For example, a woman who plays rugby is seen as less of a woman due to her “masculine physique.” They go on to describe how women reporting on more “manly” sports are not seen as less trustworthy, but they are seen as an incongruity. Furthermore, they posit that more attractive women tend to foster a more loyal fanbase, especially on social media, than less attractive women. This study is useful because it shows how people see women on television, specifically in sports journalism roles. This is excellent for our study because it gives insight into the societal reasons so few women are involved with sports reporting and if they are they are likely reporting on “feminine” sports.

Perryman, N., & Theiss, S. (2014). “WEATHER GIRLS” ON THE BIG SCREEN: Stereotypes, sex appeal, and science. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95(3), 347-356. Retrieved from http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.prx.library.gatech.edu/docview/1523900887?accountid=11107

Here Perryman argues that the portrayal of “weather girls” on television and in movies reflects the real life sexism women face in the field of meteorology. She argues “weather girls” are often sexualized and shown as airheads compared to their male counterparts. In addition, regardless if a female is more qualified, she is shown as inferior to her male colleagues. For example, a woman with a meteorology degree was not allowed to call herself a meteorologist because it made her male counterpart feel inferior. This source is useful because it directly relates to the topic my group wants to research. We want to learn about females in the media on television, and this source specifically targets female meteorologists. This source is also useful because it provides a huge amount of background information regarding female news broadcasters. It presents a history going all the way back to the very first one.

Weibel, David, Bartholomäus Wissmath, and Rudolf Groner. “How Gender and Age Affect Newscasters’ Credibility – an Investigation in Switzerland.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 52, no. 3, 2008, pp. 466. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/227289759?accountid=11107.

This source argues that newscasters’ credibility depends upon their gender. Specifically, the argument is that older female newscasters are not as trusted as older males. It also argues younger males and females are seen as equally credible by viewers. The paper posits this may be due to audience bias towards more attractive presenters. This source is useful because it offers a view into a new market of television. This source is from Europe, a place where up to 80% of newscasters are female. This is wholly the opposite of the United States. Thus, the two regions can be compared in relation to their portrayal of women on television. This source’s results must also be taken with a grain of salt. The source itself mentions the term “credibility” is not explicitly defined and thus the results from the subjects may be interpreted differently. Even with its flaws this source still provides good information.

Whipple, Thomas W., and Mary K. McManamon. “Implications of using Male and Female Voices in Commercials: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Advertising, vol. 31, no. 2, 2002, pp. 79-91. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/236553752?accountid=11107.

This peer reviewed study seeks to find how people respond to commercials depending on if they use a male voice or a female voice. The paper defines the terms “spokesperson” and “announcer” in relation to commercials and then describes the instances in which people will respond best to a male or female announcer or spokesperson. The study also mentions how men vastly outnumber women in the number of voice overs they do for television. The final conclusion is that for most products a male or female can be used to effectively advertise. This source is useful because it discusses how people react to males versus females on television. This source also relates to the theme of newscasters because both newscasters and presenters in commercials are seen as figures of authority by the audience. This source is also useful because it contradicts the rest of my sources by saying people react similarly whether they hear a male or a female voice.

Wild, N. M. (2015). Dumb vs. fake: Representations of Bush and Palin on Saturday night live and their effects on the journalistic public sphere. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(3), 494. Retrieved from http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1704390801?accountid=11107

This article discusses the Saturday Night Live sketch in which Tina Fey portrayed Sarah Palin shortly after John McCain announced Palin would be his running mate in the 2008 presidential election.  Dannagal Young, the author of this article, argues that this portrayal was influential (to some degree) in shaping Americans’ opinions of Palin.  Even though people did not solely base their ideas of Palin on how Fey presented her, they began to associate the two (who, in reality, were stark opposites politically) as one and the same.  While Young does not believe Saturday Night Live is responsible for the outcome of the 2008 election, he does believe that media is in many ways responsible for shaping people’s opinions.  This article is worth reading because its terminology is largely unbiased, and it draws a thought-provoking connection between people’s sources of entertainment and their actions, no matter how subtle this connection may seem.  For our project, it is valuable because it examines the way a popular late-night comedy show handled an election in which a female ran for president and vice president on opposing parties (a first in many fronts), and it also analyzes the public’s general reaction to this event as it was portrayed on SNL.

Miller, M. K., Peake, J. S., & Boulton, B. A. (2010). Testing the Saturday Night Live Hypothesis: Fairness and Bias in Newspaper Coverage of Hillary Clinton’s presidential campaign. Politics & Gender, 6(2), 169-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X10000036

In this article, the authors examine the way Hillary Clinton was treated by the general media during the 2008 presidential campaign.  It explores the value of the questions Clinton was asked (which, she believed, tended to be either geared toward her comfort, or, if worth any political value, were more difficult questions than those asked of her opponent, Barack Obama).  In general, it measures the differences between the media’s attitudes toward her versus their attitudes toward Obama, and it argues that Clinton was, in fact, treated with great discrimination simply because of her sex.  While this particular article only vaguely references Saturday Night Live or any type of genre within our group’s realm of focus, its exploration into the media’s treatment of women in general is worth reading.  It cites sources and charts concerning the context in which women are discussed, and according to this data, women under the public spotlight are known more for their family life than their personal views.  The hard data within this article proves concrete evidence that women are treated unfairly by the media under certain circumstances.

Santa Ana, Otto. (2009). Did you call in Mexican? The Racial Politics of Jay Leno Immigrant Jokes. Language in Society, 38(1), 23-45. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0047404508090027

Although this article explicitly discusses neither women nor Saturday Night Live, it does examine the treatment of minorities on late night comedy shows to a great extent.  In the midst of demonstrations and rallies supporting immigrant naturalization to America in 2006, Jay Leno used immigrants as the butt of a series of jokes on The Tonight Show.  The author of this article, Santa Ana, argues the idea that society is divided when it comes to perspectives on late-night comedy.  Some believe that nothing is off limits because no matter what the joke is about, somebody will be made fun of, but others demand that comedians should use basic judgement when making jokes, and if it demeans a person or group, then the joke should go untold.  In fact, when an off-color joke is told by a person as well-known and revered as Leno, the audience is more likely to let it slide and not even recognize that certain groups find it offensive.  I think this article is worth reading because it presents another side to the “it’s just a joke” argument.  It’s an important thing for everyone to keep in mind, even if it doesn’t really do a lot for our research purposes.

Summergrad, S. (2016). Can we talk?: A discussion of gender politics in the late-night comedy career of Joan Rivers (Order No. 10130835). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text. (1801956682). Retrieved from http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1801956682?accountid=11107

Here, Joan Rivers’ career as a comedian is explored in great detail.  Summergrad, the author, argues that Joan Rivers tends to be remembered by her plastic-surgeries-gone-wrong and her roles as a red-carpet host, but she is not known as much for being a comedian, whether as a guest host or the host of her own show.  This article examines writings which argue that men are generally funnier than women, women’s humor is domestic in type, and women’s humor is simply “noise.”  It presents the argument that these beliefs stem from the generations-old idea that women belong in the home, and overcoming this idea will take time.  However, the author writes, women do indeed have a role in comedy, and Joan Rivers is a prime example of this.  This particular article is worth reading because it examines the rise of women’s role in comedy beginning in the Lucille Ball era and spanning that time to the present day.  For our project, it provides insight into the public’s view of women in comedy, and delves into that idea being seen as a stigma.

Kolbert, E. (1993, Aug 22). Television: Why late-night TV is a man’s world. New York Times Retrieved from http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/429199461?accountid=11107

Published in the early 1990s (on my mother’s thirty-third birthday, ironically), this article examines the idea that late-night television is primarily hosted, viewed, and appreciated by men.  It argues that this pattern is not necessarily “anti-women,” it just happened to work this way.  Men showed greater interest in this field more than women did, and as a result, more men were hired to work as writers, producers, etc. for late night comedy.  The author argues that most humor in late-night comedy shows are self-defense driven, and he believes that this is a realm of humor used primarily by men, and was “learned in school by little boys trying to get by” (Kolbert).  Because this article supports a view point that is a little more pro-men and anti-equal rights than most others I’ve found so far, I think it is definitely worth reading and using.  It’s always beneficial to at least see the other side of an argument, and I believe this article presents a relatively civil version of that.

Mannis, Samantha. “Late-Night Comedy Evolves with New Generation of Viewers.”University Wire, Apr 28, 2014. ProQuest, http://prx.library.gatech.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1519246639?accountid=11107

This article examines the shift of late-night comedy as its viewership majority gradually changes from baby boomers to millennials.  Written during Jimmy Fallon’s early days as host of The Tonight Show, Mannis argues that bringing in a new host symbolizes a new era of late-night comedy, and this era will be more familiar and relatable to the current generation.  Although shows such as Saturday Night Live provide classic entertainment with older sketches that have been replayed again and again, that show is also finding a new voice as hosting in late-night comedy appears to be changing across the board.  According to this author, younger people will find late night comedy shows to be more and more relatable to them instead of something they think their parents might find funny.  This article is absolutely worth reading because it explores the changing ages and demographics of people who watch late night comedy shows, and points to the correlation that must exist between these shows and their audiences.  If people don’t find the shows funny and relatable, what makes them worth watching?