The story of Mulan had origins far past the most recent mainstream retelling from Disney’s Mulan (2020). Although there is debate whether the story of Mulan is a true story, recent historians suggest she was not. The story of Mulan started with a poem dating far back between the 4th and 6th centuries.
The poem, found below, was also referenced as a song. This early version of the story, “The Ballad of Mulan,” had origins in Yuefe Shiji, known as the “Music Bureau Poetry Collection.”
Mulan weaves, facing the door.
You don’t hear the shuttle’s sound,
You only hear Daughter’s sighs.
They ask Daughter who’s in her heart,
They ask Daughter who’s on her mind.
“No one is on Daughter’s heart,
No one is on Daughter’s mind.
Last night I saw the draft posters,
The Khan is calling many troops,
The army list is in twelve scrolls,
On every scroll there’s Father’s name.
Father has no grown‑up son,
Mulan has no elder brother.
I want to buy a saddle and horse,
And serve in the army in Father’s place.”
In the East Market she buys a spirited horse,
In the West Market she buys a saddle,
In the South Market she buys a bridle,
In the North Market she buys a long whip.
At dawn she takes leave of Father and Mother,
In the evening camps on the Yellow River’s bank.
She doesn’t hear the sound of Father and Mother calling,
She only hears the Yellow River’s flowing water cry tsien tsien.
At dawn she takes leave of the Yellow River,
In the evening she arrives at Black Mountain.
She doesn’t hear the sound of Father and Mother calling,
She only hears Mount Yen’s nomad horses cry tsiu tsiu.
She goes ten thousand miles on the business of war,
She crosses passes and mountains like flying.
Northern gusts carry the rattle of army pots,
Chilly light shines on iron armor.
Generals die in a hundred battles,
Stout soldiers return after ten years.
On her return she sees the Son of Heaven,
The Son of Heaven sits in the Splendid Hall.
He gives out promotions in twelve ranks
And prizes of a hundred thousand and more.
The Khan asks her what she desires.
“Mulan has no use for a minister’s post.
I wish to ride a swift mount
To take me back to my home.”
When Father and Mother hear Daughter is coming
They go outside the wall to meet her, leaning on each other.
When Elder Sister hears Younger Sister is coming
She fixes her rouge, facing the door.
When Little Brother hears Elder Sister is coming
He whets the knife, quick quick, for pig and sheep.
“I open the door to my east chamber,
I sit on my couch in the west room,
I take off my wartime gown
And put on my old‑time clothes.”
Facing the window she fixes her cloudlike hair,
Hanging up a mirror she dabs on yellow flower powder
She goes out the door and sees her comrades.
Her comrades are all amazed and perplexed.
Traveling together for twelve years
They didn’t know Mulan was a girl.
“The he‑hare’s feet go hop and skip,
The she‑hare’s eyes are muddled and fuddled.
Two hares running side by side close to the ground,
How can they tell if I am he or she?”
Guo Maoqian created this compilation of poetry somewhere between 960 and 1279 CE. The poem found above originated well before this time, but the lack of physical writing made this version the oldest surviving copy.
The Origins
As seen in the poem, the original story follows Mulan as she volunteers for her father, who is called into battle. The emperor in the story is referred to as “Khan” (also could be called Kehan or Kaghan). Many scholars assert that this early story had roots in the Northern Wei dynasty and that Mulan must have been from the nomadic society called the Tuoba.
The Tuoba clan were a group of Xianbei people who travelled from northern China, and historians argue women held respect in the society as the story was named after the heroine. This Northern Wei dynasty was sandwiched between the turbulent Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) fall and the rise of the Sui dynasty (589-618 CE). The Northern Wei dynasty had Turkish influence, which caused significant changes in the previous Han Chinese people. The Northern Wei dynasty led to the synthesis of two unique cultures that produced new music and poetry. Much of this new art portrayed the independence and strength of the northern women. One interesting note is that although Mulan translates to “Mongolia” in Chinese, recent evidence points to the Turkish influence on language, pointing to “Mulan” being a masculine name at the time. This lent to Mulan’s ability, in the poem, to hide her gender, as evidenced by the final lines.
“The he‑hare’s feet go hop and skip,
The she‑hare’s eyes are muddled and fuddled.
Two hares running side by side close to the ground,
How can they tell if I am he or she?”
The Poem’s Simplicity
Mulan is seen sighing, and while the rest of her family assumes the sighs stem from a romantic partner, she explains that she heard about the call from the emperor. She notes her family’s lack of a son to fight, so she describes her desire to buy a horse and fight in place of her father. She follows through with the preparations for the war and garners success in being in the army. Despite being considered for a promotion, Mulan declines and decides to journey back home, where she is met by her family. She finally discloses her true identity, leaving her comrades shocked but amazed.
The poem’s main themes include subtle gender roles but focus mainly on filial piety. At the beginning of the poem, her family assumes she is thinking of romantic interests. Several lines of the poem describe her reasons for fighting in the war. She wants to protect her father and keep him from the war. She thinks less of herself and more of her family. At her core, her family is the reason to fight rather than nationalistic beliefs or wanting honor.
Future Works
There is no shortage of new adaptations following the original poems. These novel works span movies, plays, and songs. The different adaptations take creative liberty, adding their own unique interpretations.
For example, The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place, written in the 16th Century as a play, emphasizes Mulan’s place as a woman and took her out of the Northern Wei dynasty timeline. In this play, she unbinds her feet, a major symbol of her transformation from hiding herself.
Many of these earlier adaptations altered the main theme of filial piety to nationalism. Notably, Mulan Joins the Army, a film adaptation, places Mulan in China during Japan’s occupation of China. This film contained significant nationalistic undertones. This film depicts Mulan driving out invaders, and instead of protecting her family, she seeks to protect her country.
Some of the most notable works that have influenced Disney’s movie adaptations are found below.
The play The Female Mulan introduces a wholly new take on the revered story. In previous tellings, such as The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place or in “The Historical Romance of the Sui and Tang,” Mulan dies by suicide to either prove her loyalty to the emperor or escape becoming a concubine, respectively. The Female Mulan (16th century CE) introduced a novel ending to the previously tragic story. Rather than dying at the end, this play ends with Mulan’s eventual happiness and marriage. This rather revolutionary play also added Mulan’s surname, Hua, which means flower.
These many works paved the way for the most recent film adaptations, Disney’s 1998 Mulan and their 2020 live-action Mulan.
Mulan: Expanding the Heroine’s Story
Although the most recent Disney Mulan was released in 2020, the original Disney take on the historical story first appeared in 1998. This 1998 version had several new elements that the 2020 Mulan eventually moved away from. This 1998 Mulan introduced the story to a wider audience, so its interpretation is the major focus.
Mulan (1998) and its Musical Interpretations
The creators of this movie chose to turn this into a musical, possibly paying homage to the original art form of a poem, ballad, or song. There are numerous songs in the movie that emphasize key details of the story and make the film unique, catering to a new, younger audience.
The film starts with Mulan, the main character, starting a very important day. She is meeting her matchmaker and is extremely nervous. She allows her mother and grandmother to prepare her for this meeting, but her time with the matchmaker does not go as planned. This first song seeks to portray Mulan as a feminine, beautiful character. She is doing her duty of bringing honor to her family, so the film delves deeper into the original ideas of filial piety. With this song, the audience begins to understand the place and “duty” of women in this era of China.
A girl can bring her family
Great honor in one way
By striking a good match
And this could be the day
Men want girls with good taste
Calm
Obedient
With good breeding
And a tiny waist
You'll bring honor to us all
The next major song depicts Mulan in despair after she fails to make a good impression on the matchmaker. She laments that she can not be a good wife. The songwriters and creators likely meant for this song to represent a large number of young women who weren’t able to fit themselves into the strict role of “good daughter.” They most likely wanted to give a voice to women forgotten, not only in China but internationally. This song, even in modern interpretations, represents the desire to be seen, valued, and worthy of respect and honor for being one’s authentic self. Mulan’s desires can reflect many, if not all, young girls today. The inclusion of this popular song creates new meaning beyond the original poem by asserting that even before she disguised herself as a man, she sought to be seen for who she truly was.
After the introductory day, Mulan’s father is called to the war, but it is revealed that he previously fought and was injured in another war. Mulan attempts to protect him but brings more shame to her family. She, privately devises a plan to go in his place, replacing her father’s invitation with her flower hair comb.
The film also includes a beloved character named Mushu. Mushu is a small dragon who is inadvertently sent by Mulan’s ancestors to protect her after she leaves. Disney is an American company; therefore, Mulan most likely targeted the American people as the main audience. Mushu becomes a child-friendly character that represents an undeniably popular Chinese symbol. He is easy to love and gives the story a debatably more “Chinese” feel.
With Mushu by her side, Mulan begins training with the army, where she meets three other soldiers. These soldiers represent her “comrades” as referenced in the original Ballad of Mulan.
Mulan then meets Shang, the new general of the army, after his father passes in battle. She and Shang have a rocky relationship at the start, but soon, Mulan gains his respect with her transition to a strong soldier. The movie uses the song “I’ll Make a Man Out of You” to describe her improvement as a soldier. Where the original poem described Mulan’s journey to being a soldier with how she bought what she needed, the film shows Mulan’s transformation in music.
Mulan goes on to save the life of Shang, but she is found to be a woman. The film deliberately exposes her and denotes that she should be killed according to the law. Shang chooses not to kill her. With this mercy, Mulan could return home, but she chooses to fight for the very country that could have killed her.
It is in her decision to save China despite being free to return home that draws on the previous adaptations that change Mulan’s intentions to nationalism and pride in her country. These previous works that shifted from filial piety to nationalism seep into this film adaptation as she tries to save China by herself, met with annoyance and distrust because of her gender.
In one of the most notable and empowering moments for Mulan, her comrades decide to take her advice and dress as women to get past the enemies and save the emperor.
The film introduces an entirely new idea to the story of Mulan by turning the transformation from woman to man on its head. Mulan comes up with a plan to save the Emperor, who was taken by the Huns, China’s enemies. Like the previous adaptations, this movie seeks to inspire women. One unique aspect that Mulan (1998) includes is highlighting her intellect. Not only does Mulan change her appearance, but she also begins using her knowledge and intuition to save China. She rejected the notion that her value came from her ability to be wed and embraced her skill, determination, and love for her country and her family.
The end of the movie draws on the poem’s ending. Mulan is granted much respect and honor from the Emperor himself and is offered a high position in the government. She declines and asks to be allowed to go home, which the Emperor gladly grants. The movie diverges from the poem when the Emperor gifts Mulan with the Emperor’s crest and the sword of the defeated leader of the Huns. The movie includes this exchange to give Mulan proof to show to her family her accomplishments.
The closing part of the movie takes inspiration from both the original poem and the play The Female Mulan. Mulan is welcomed home by her father, mother, and grandmother.
In a beautiful ending, her father welcomes her back with wide arms. The sword and Emperor’s crest are forgone because his daughter is safe and well. The movie adopts an optimistic ending rather than Mulan dying by suicide. It brings its origins to the original poem where Mulan is welcomed home by her family.
Similar to The Female Mulan, the ending of the movie also includes the possibility of a marriage between Mulan and General Shang. As opposed to previous works of the story of Mulan, the movie does not confirm that the two actually wed. Instead, the ending is left open. This allows for further women empowerment by arguing that marriage does not give women their worth and value. Mulan ends the story with immense honor and without a husband, and the ending solidifies this concept.
Reinterpretations and Novel Meanings
Mulan (1998) is laden with unique takes on the historic poem. The movie remains true to the original poem in many ways. The movie incorporates both ideas of filial piety and nationalism. The film brings aspects like Mulan’s horse and her family to life on the screen. It also incorporates her comrades and their understood support in the poem.
One of the major alterations the movie includes is when Mulan convinces her comrades to dress as women. Once dressed as women, they are treated as weaker and not seen as a threat. This allows them to successfully defeat the enemies and rescue the Emperor. This change showcases Mulan’s intelligence while proving to the entirety of China the power of women.
Another new interpretation the film adds is the idea that Mulan’s life is more important than the respect of the Emperor or nation. This movie indicates that family and filial piety supercedes one’s duty to his or her country. This idea is subtle, yet it seems rooted in the original poem prior to the subsequent adaptations. This is further supported when Mulan returns home rather than accept a respected government position.
The movie also chooses to depict femininity through personality traits like obedience, cooking ability, and gentleness, as well as physical traits like a “tiny waist.” Unlike in the poem, which only attributes weaving to a feminine character, the movie highlights several aspects that are considered feminine. This divergence and inclusion of more aspects gives the movie a wider range to define and constrict a woman. This calls for Mulan to overcome more than just an occupation throughout the movie.
Overall, Mulan (1998) pays ample respect to the original poem but still has room to portray the story in a new light. The role of women in China and their ability to break barriers remains nuanced, allowing for artistic interpretation and alterations whenever an adaptation is created. As women continue to achieve accomplishments unheard of before, The Ballad of Mulan will continue to encourage women and young girls in its original form and its adaptations.
