By: Ava Thai

The story of “The Butterfly Lovers,” often referred to as “Chinese Romeo and Juliet,” is an infamous love story in China that demonstrates the strength of love.

The Original Story

This story follows two main characters, Zhu Yingtai and Liang Shanbo, schoolmates turned lovers in Ningbo City in the Zhejiang Province during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (266-420 AD). Zhu Yingtai was the daughter of a loving, wealthy family with an insatiable curiosity. During this time, women were expected to learn housewife skills, preserving education for men. Her family allowed her to cross-dress as a man and attend school, having everyone believe she was a man. In school, she met Liang Shanbo. They instantly hit it off, becoming best friends and spending every day together. Slowly but surely, Yingtai fell deeply in love with Shanbo.

Zhu Yingtai’s father betrothed her to Ma Wencai, another wealthy family in the city. Since she planned to be wed, she had to leave school soon, leaving Liang Shanbo. She did not want to leave without telling him the truth about her. The week leading up to her departure, she took a walk with him, referring to them as “Mandarin Ducks”, trying to get him to realize what she was trying to confess to her. Alas, he did not, and she told him that she had a sister identical to her that he would pair well with. Yingtai convinced him to come to her hometown to meet her “sister”, trying to confess her truth to him. On his way home from school, Shanbo realized what Yingtai was trying to tell him. Finding out this information, he realized that he loved her and did not want to lose her. Shanbo tried to gain Yingtai’s parents’ blessing for their marriage, but they would not allow it. Shanbo was not of wealthy status, causing their rejection of him.

Due to the disappointing news, Shanbo fell depressed and died from grief of not being able to marry his love. He asked to be buried by the road outside of Zhu Yingtai’s fiancé, forcing her to pass by his grave on the day of their wedding. On the wedding day, an intense wind and rain storm came over the city. As Yingtai passed his grave, she fell to her knees due to sadness. When she did this, a bright light appeared and the grave miraculously opened. Yingtai immediately jumped in, breaking all social norms and rejoining her true love. The storm reached its peak, with thunder and wind going crazy. After she disappeared, the storm calmed and the sun shined on the city once again. Two butterflies emerged from the grave, dancing around and never being separated since. They fluttered around the grave, symbolizing eternal love.

Passerby’s witnessing the transformation spread the story rapidly, allowing the audience to hear the timeless tale about true love.

The Love Eterne

The Love Eterne is a Hong Kong film released in 1963 and directed by Li Han-hsiang inspired by “The Butterfly Lovers.” It won “The Golden Horse Award for Best Director” and “The Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actress.” Although it follows the typical plot of the original story of Yingtai cross-dressing as a man and falling in love with her lower-class schoolmate, it dives deeper into gender roles, feminism, and social constraints.

National Impact

The Love Eterne quickly became a box-office success in Taiwan. It provided a sense of Chinese cultural identity as the movie started to migrate to international audiences. Many Chinese citizens fled from mainland China due to political challenges taking place in the 1960s. This film allowed them to regain their sense of cultural identity from the glamorized, “dreamlike” representation of China in the film.

At this time, Hong Kong and Taiwan were trying to become sovereign nations from China. The Shaw Brother’s movies, like this one, promoted the Cold War ideals while China was being converted to Communism. It helped display the notion that Taiwan was the only place where true Chinese culture was represented with Confucian morals and traditional Chinese stories. This story was turned into a political strategy to prevent China from being taken over by the Communist regime. The Shaw Brothers served as Chinese exiles, like many in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Their success with this movie paved the way for the Taiwanese film industry, giving them a sense of national unity and cultural identity. It shifted their post-war identity, where the film industry displayed the political and economic state of their country after this movie was released.

This film converted many Taiwanese citizens into major fans of Ivy Ling Po. They appreciated that she could display the true meaning of Chinese culture through film. This was Taiwan’s and other Chinese exiles’ first films that could accurately depict true Chinese culture before they were pushed out by Communist regimes. Since this film was released during the Communist regime taking over China and forcing the Nationalists out, it gave them new hope for their new home and their cultural identity preservation. She received a Golden Horse Award and many gifts from fans for her work with this film.

Gender Roles

In the original story, Shanbo is depicted as only seeing Yingtai as a friend when she cross-dressed as a man to attend school. In, The Love Eterne, it is depicted as Shanbo being in love with Yingtai, thinking he is a man. It pushes the idea of homosexuality with Shanbo and Yingtai, a concept heavily despised during that period. This change reinterprets the main idea around the first half of the story. The original story is mainly about societal class dividing the two lovers from not allowing each other to be together. But, in the movie, it is reimagined that gender is keeping them apart instead. Shanbo, although is never stated, is openly in love with his male counterpart in school. It has been heavily debated between academics of Shanbo’s actual sexuality in the film. This movie gave the LGBT+ community new visibility on the main screen. During this time, they were facing many challenges, as LGBTQ was a taboo concept. The Love Eterne gave the community a voice and visibility on the screen. The Love Eterne turns the story more into a queer performance than the differences of class like the Communist regime once fought with the Violin Concerto of this story.

This film dipped into the idea of gender-fluidity as well. The actress playing Chu Yingtai was Ivy Ling Po. Men regarded her as a female while females referred to her as a male due to her cross-dressing in the film as Liang Shanbo. Although Director Li Han-hsiang has not directly spoken about why he chose to cast her, it is believed that it was a nod to opera performances where women were cast to play men and vice-versa. Shanbo’s voice turned into a light soprano, contributing to the gender blurring seen through this film. It dips into the idea that gender is a social construct, not a biological quality. This is seen in Ling Po’s performance as a man. Another thought is that it adds to the gender ambiguity already associated with this movie.

This movie contributes to female empowerment, with the two main roles being played by females. It is normally the opposite where males portray female roles as seen in Peking Opera. It displayed the success females can have on films, allowing more roles being offered to females afterwards. Due to the casting of this movie, it is considered a highly progressive movie in Taiwan, paving the way for female actresses in the film industry.

Judith Butler’s Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity

Judith Butler’s Theory about gender states that gender is not defined by a person’s biological anatomy, but by their everyday actions that contribute to their “gender performance.” This theory has been applied many times to both leads in this film. It is applied to Yingtai when she is cross-dressing as a man to attend, and it is applied to Ivy Ling Po in real life. As mentioned above, many viewers did not know how to refer to Po after the movie. Men regarded her as a woman, and women regarded her as a man. This film brings a new definition to gender that was not as present in the original story.

Conclusion

The movie adaption of “The Butterfly Lovers” reinterprets the story from societal class divisions to gender fluidity and ambiguity. The film turned a Chinese folktale into a sign of cultural identity for Chinese exiles, scared of what was next for their country. It gave them a new sense of nationalism for their country and paved the way for their film industry displaying the economic and political state of their country. This film restructured the main concern of the original story. At first, the story mainly focused on class division, but it was reconstructed to be about gender fluidity instead.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is one of the “Four Great Classical Novels” of Chinese literature. It depicts the plots, deceptions, battles, and stories of the end of the Han Dynasty, when the land was divided and in constant conflict. The novel follows the advisors, emperors, military generals, and other leaders in this divided land as they maneuver around plots, assassinations, and power-hungry schemers as they try to unite the land.

Yu-Gi-Oh!

Yu-Gi-Oh! is originally a Japanese manga created by Kazuki Takahashi, which is the origin for the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game after Konami, a Japanese gaming company, bought the license and rights from Takahashi. Since then, it has become one of the top 3 grossing Trading Card Games worldwide, up there with Pokemon and Magic the Gathering. Pokemon has its cards based off of the Pokemon videos games, and Magic the Gathering has its cards based off medieval fantasy, such as concepts from Dungeons and Dragons (D&D), a game owned by the same company. On the other hand, Yu-Gi-Oh!’s themes are seemingly random. For reference, below are two artworks from that same game.

Ancient Warriors

Sometimes, Yu-Gi-Oh! takes some of its card concepts from fictional stories, such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms. “Ancient Warriors” is a series of cards inspired from the novel that has each of its cards depict a character from the novel, or a significant event in the story. The Japanese name of the cards, “戦
せん火“, roughly translates to “Warring Flower”. Of the characters depicted in the cards, many aspects of the characters are actually referenced in one way or another in their individual cards. For example, characters from the Eastern Wu, such as Zhou Yu and Sun Quan, are depicted with a WATER-Attribute in the top-right. Similarly, those from Shu Han were depicted with a WIND-Attribute, like Zhang Fei and Guang Yu, and those from Cao Wei were depicted with a FIRE-Attribute, like Cao Cao and Zhang Liao. On the other hand, independent characters, like the warlord Dong Zhuo, are assigned the DARK-Attribute. Below are some examples of the more important characters in the novel in card form.

In the beginning of the story, the emperor of the Han Empire, Emperor Shao and his half-brother, were caught up in a rebellion by the Ten Attendants, a group of Court eunuchs. While they escaped with their lives, they were found by the warlord Dong Zhuo. Dong used the opportunity to seize control of Luoyang, the imperial capital, under the guise of protecting the emperor and his half-brother. Eventually, he gained more and more power and influence, casting out Shao and instilling a new puppet emperor, while oppressing the people of the nation for his gain.

“Ancient Warriors – Savage Don Ying” is based off of Dong Zhuo. As mentioned before, the DARK-Attributed listed on the top-right of the card denotes the nation that Dong Zhuo originates from – In this instance, since Dong Zhuo is an independent warlord, he is DARK-Attribute. Additionally, his tyrannical rule over the common people is also depicted in the first line of his card text – “While you control a Level 7 or higher “Ancient Warriors” monster, your opponent must pay 400 LP to activate a card or effect”. This is a reference to how he would oppress the people with taxes for his personal gain; however, in order to do so, he needed a puppet emperor in place, hence the requirement of “a Level 7 or higher “Ancient Warriors” monster”.

Because of Dong Zhuo’s tyrannical rule, there were many failed assassination attempts on him. One such attempt was made by Cao Cao, but unlike previous attempts, Cao Cao managed to escape with his life after the attempt. After this, he called upon the assistance of many other warlords in the land using a fake imperial order, uniting 18 warlords into a singular army to combat Dong Zhuo and overthrow him. Dong Zhuo lost the battles that followed and decided to flee after burning down Luoyang, after which the 18-warlord alliance disbanded due to a lack of proper leadership.

Cao Cao was from the Cao Wei kingdom, as referenced by the FIRE-Attribute on the top-right corner. Additionally, his first line of text makes him more powerful if you have another “Ancient Warrior” in play, referencing his leadership and heightened strength with allies by his side when he fought against Dong Zhuo with the 18 warlords, a contrast to Cao Cao’s assassination attempt on him, as he was alone at the time.

After fleeing from Luoyang, Dong Zhuo went to Chang’an with the remainder of his troops. However, Wang Yun, a minister of Chang’an at the time, was also plotting to assassinate Dong Zhuo. He took advantage of Dong Zhuo’s foul temper and used it as leverage for Lu Bu, Dong Zhuo’s adoptive son. Wang Yun convinced Lu Bu that Dong Zhuo did not truly care about his life, and that a blood relation did not exist between them since he was adopted. As such, Wang Yun convinced Lu Bu to betray Dong Zhuo and kill him.

The card “Ancient Warriors Saga – Deception and Betrayal” depicts Lu Bu’s defection from Dong Zhuo. This is actually represented in the effects of “Ancient Warriors – Rebellious Lu Feng” (the card representing Lu Bu”. The card, while powerful, has a downside to potentially give itself to the opponent if your opponent has a stronger card, representing Lu Bu’s tendency to betray his allies and how he was easily manipulated by Wang Yun.

This is just the beginning of the story of Romance of the Three Kingdoms; in fact, what was just covered is perhaps less than 10% of the complete novel. You can find a complete recollection of the story here, as well as its connections to its Yu-Gi-Oh! card counterparts and references here.

“The empire long divided, must unite; the empire long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been.”

Released in 2019, Creative Assembly and Sega’s 12th installment of the Total War franchise takes a new spin on a cornerstone of Chinese culture: the Three Kingdoms period and Luo Guanzhong’s historical epic The Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Originally written in the 14th century, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms dramatizes the fall of the Han Dynasty, the rise of powerful warlords, the founding of the Three Kingdoms, and the eventual reunification of China under the Jin Dynasty. As one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms has transcended the bounds of culture and history, with adaptations and reimaginations in the form of films, spin-off books, and more.

Total War: Three Kingdoms allows players to experience the romance like never before. With character-based campaigns, real-time tactical battles, and pivotal decision-making mechanics, those who play can rewrite the story of the Three Kingdoms in completely new ways.

Origins: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Blending history, legend, and myth, the original novel recounts the chaotic Three Kingdoms period. Beginning during the fall of the Han Empire, the epic gives a dramatic, semi-fictionalized account of the roughly 100 years from 184 AD to 280 AD. We are introduced to iconic figures like Cao Cao, cunning strategist and leader of Wei; Liu Bei, the virtuous and benevolent leader of Shu; and Sun Quan, the pragmatic and cautious leader of Wu.

The epic recounts the early rise of Dong Zhou, his betrayal at the hands of Lu Bu, and the Rise of the Three Kingdoms following Lu Bu’s defeat. Throughout the novel, Luo Guanzhong explores ideas of righteousness, honor, and the pursuit of harmony amidst an era of chaos.

Importantly, Guanzhong’s writing was also heavily influenced by Confucian ideals of morality and the Mandate of Heaven. Liu Bei is often portrayed as the rightful heir to rule the land because he is favored by the heavens. Cao Cao, despite his reputation as a cunning strategist and control over the emperor, is often portrayed in a negative light due to a “lack of virtue.”

Throughout the chaos of frequent battles and shaky alliances, the novel emphasizes loyalty as the highest virtue, righteousness over personal gain, and that cleverness alone isn’t enough; it must serve morality to earn the Mandate of Heaven.

Ultimately, the Three Kingdoms came to be united under the Jin Dynasty that sprang from Cao Cao’s kingdom of Wei.

Despite its cultural precedence, modern audiences may find engaging with the novel difficult. Spanning over 800,000 words, the romance can be overwhelming due to its assumptions of Confucian knowledge, court politics, and dynastic customs.

Total War: Three Kingdoms

Luckily, Total War: Three Kingdoms provides an interactive way for modern audiences to engage with the classic story of the Three Kingdoms. Blending turn-based strategy with real-time tactical battles, the game allows players to step into the shoes of the warlords of the story, featuring Cao Cao, Lu Bu, Liu Bei, and many more playable leaders.

Just as the warlords of the period vied to unite China under their rule, players work to expand their territory through diplomacy, conquest, and alliance, all while managing the economy, resources, and characters of their empire.

The game allows players to choose between two modes of play: Romance or Records. Based on the legendary and epic nature of Luo Guanzhong’s novel, the Romance mode portrays generals as superhumans with exaggerated abilities. The game takes the fantastical romance of the novel a step further, with characters engaging in epic duels, defeating entire armies, and acting as near-mythical figures.

On the other hand, the Records mode reflects the historical accounts of the Three Kingdoms period. This mode is both grounded and realistic, where generals act as regular units, and tactics and formations triumph over heroics and legendary feats.

Regardless of which path is chosen, the game immerses players in an interactive world rich with Chinese culture, with menu screens inspired by traditional brush painting, music evoking harmony and balance, and Confucian-inspired gameplay systems such as character traits and legitimacy. The game allows players to not just play as Chinese warlords, but lead according to Chinese cultural values.

Reshaping the Romance

Although Total War: Three Kingdoms honors both The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and the history of the Three Kingdoms period, it is not simply another retelling of the same story, but rather, a chance for players to forge a new narrative.

Perhaps the most significant interpretive choice of the game is the reduction of the Confucian moral binary. This choice not only modernizes the story for a global audience but also invites players to expand upon the themes originally presented by Luo Guanzhong. Throughout their campaigns, players rethink what power, virtue, and legitimacy truly mean. The Confucian lens of the romance guided readers’ judgements, but in the game, characters are cast not in moral roles, but as leaders with agendas, strengths, and weaknesses.

Players have the opportunity to engage with moral ambiguity, deciding for themselves if power without virtue is truly hollow, if ambition is not simply corruption, but adaptation. Players will frequently be presented with choices of mercy or brutality, and violence or alliance. Through their choices in the game, players do not just read of betrayal, but commit it and come to justify it.

Rather than rewarding moral absolutism, the game invites ethical exploration, transforming a story of predestined virtue and villainy into an open-ended meditation on leadership, agency, and power.

Three Kingdoms Across the Globe

Peaking at 191,816 concurrent players on Steam Chats, Total War: Three Kingdoms was a global success, bridging Eastern Historical narratives and Western audiences. The game has brought one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels to the screens of players as a global interactive experience. Players are not just exposed to Chinese culture, but immersed in it through the progression and mechanics of the game. Through interpretive choices and flexible gameplay, Total War: Three Kingdoms has been solidified as a fantastic reimagination of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, that has and continues to serve as a global conduit of exploration for Chinese literature, history, and philosophy.

Source Material

Total War Cover Image

Three Kingdoms Rulers Portrait

Battle of Red Cliffs

Total War Game Engine Image

Character Select

Mode Select

Cao Cao Traits

Origins

“The Legend of the White Snake” is one of China’s most beloved folk tales, with origins tracing back more than a thousand years. Over the centuries, it has been passed down through many different formats, including operas, literary adaptations, and movies, changing slightly with each retelling to suit the climate of the times. The story mostly revolves around the romance between Bai Suzhen, a mystical white snake that can take the form of a beautiful woman, and Xu Xian, an ordinary mortal man. Their love faces severe trials, mostly from the Buddhist monk Fa Hai, who considers the relationship between a supernatural being and a human unnatural and totally unacceptable. Universal themes such as love, morality, transformation, and societal expectations make the narrative deeply relatable to a wide range of audiences.

The original tale, especially in its earliest forms, strongly promoted rigid Buddhist values, emphasizing morality through clear distinctions between good and evil, natural and supernatural. In these traditional versions, Fa Hai is portrayed positively as a righteous guardian of morality. He fiercely condemned unorthodox relationships and female sexuality, which were perceived as threatening societal stability / religious purity. Bai Suzhen, despite her sincere love for Xu Xian, mostly served as a cautionary figure representing feminine seduction and transgression. This rigid moral stance reflected Buddhism’s strong influence during the period, reinforcing traditional gender norms and discouraging boundary-crossing relationships.

_{Painting from the Summer Palace in Beijing depicting the legend}

Modern Retelling

One particularly compelling global adaptation of this traditional narrative is the 2019 animated film “White Snake” produced by Light Chaser Animation Studios. The film follows Blanca, a white snake spirit that can take human form, as she embarks on a mission to stop a powerful Taoist general from achieving immortality at the cost of countless snake lives. During the failed mission, she loses her memory and is rescued by a kindhearted young man named Ah Xuan, who happens to be a snake-catcher. As Blanca searches for clues about her identity and the world around her, a romance arises between them. However, their love is soon tested by forces from both the human and supernatural realms. Unlike many traditional adaptations that focus on moral and ethical dilemmas, this film explores identity struggles, power dynamics, and self realization. Set as a prequel, the film gives much more depth to Bai Suzhen’s story by showcasing her life before her famous relationship with Xu Xian, providing new contexts and layers to the age-old tale.

_{Promotional image for White Snake movie}

Blanca’s amnesia following her failed mission serves as a powerful narrative device, emphasizing questions of personal identity, free will, and the exploration of one’s true self. Her memory loss resets her understanding of the world as well as herself. It removes any preconceived notions of allegiance, morality, and purpose that she may have accumulated. Through Blanca’s eyes, we see a gradual reconstruction of who she is. Her amnesia is a vehicle for transformation. By forgetting who she was, Blanca is able to become someone new, someone who questions authority, feels empathy for humans, and reconsiders her previous mission. This invites viewers to think about how identity is shaped not only by memory, but also by the choices we make everyday, choices which can be free of the road we have traveled thus far. It may make audiences reconsider the momentum of their own lives and decide to rethink what is truly important to them.

_{White Snake movie trailer}

The film empowers Blanca through a far more nuanced character development, aligning with modern perspectives on agency and female empowerment. Traditionally, Bai Suzhen was  portrayed as a passive figure whose destiny was controlled by the oppressive interventions of Fa Hai. However, “White Snake” portrays Blanca as a powerful and proactive character, someone who actively shapes her destiny through her choices. By confronting oppressive structures, Blanca’s character emphasizes personal autonomy and resistance against oppression, a huge deviation from her original portrayal as a two-dimension vixen that must be vanquished by religious and moral authority.

Another stark difference is the treatment of religious authority figures like Fa Hai. In the traditional version, Fa Hai represents a kind of unquestionable moral authority, backed by Buddhism and the social order it reinforces. In “White Snake,” however, this type of rigid authority is absent, replaced instead by more nuanced questions about who holds power and why. This reflects broader cultural changes, as where the old story emphasized obedience and conformity, the new version emphasizes choice, complexity, and resistance to dogma. It reflects a modern sensibility where people are much more questioning of power structures in society, both religious and governmental. 

Ultimately, the 2019 animated adaptation “White Snake” revitalizes “The Legend of the White Snake” by transforming it from cautionary folklore (and potentially Buddhist propaganda) into a profound exploration of identity, choice, and empowerment. By expanding traditional narrative boundaries and using visually captivating storytelling, the film introduces timeless Chinese folklore to global audiences. It shows how ancient stories can evolve to maintain relevance, delivering enduring messages that resonate deeply across different cultures and generations.

The Legend of the White Snake is a Chinese folktale that has adapted over the centuries from oral storytelling to peking opera to animation. At it’s core the legend retells a story of love between Bai Suzhen(the white snake), a powerful snake spirit, and Xu Xian, a kind-hearted scholar. However a monk named Fahai sees Bai Suzhen as an evil spirit and gets in between them showing Xu Xian her true form which drives the conflict in the story. While the story has changed its meaning many times through the centuries, in more recent times it is a tragic love story that has themes of compassion, devotion and love.

In the older versions of the legend this conflict between Bai Suzhen and Fahai leads to a fight where Bai Suzhen fights for Xu Xian and their love while Fahai is against this due to his spirituality and his mindset that humans and spirits cannot mingle with each other. This leads to the tragedy that is brought up earlier as Bai Suzhen cannot overcome Fahai’s spirituality and is imprisoned under the Leifeng Pagoda forever. This story in older times was retold this way to teach against the breaking of social norms which disrupts Confucius harmony. Confucianism was very important and therefore the story adapted this way.

However, in more recent times the story adapts to show Bai Suzhen’s triumph against Fahai. As Confucian values were slowly fading out, many more modern ideas of love and devotion allowed the story to undergo change again which is seen in many modern adaptations and especially in the animation industry in one notable global retelling, Hakujaden or the White Snake Enchantress.

Hakujaden(1958): Animating for the First Time

Hakujaden(1958), was one of the first full-length colors anime films retelling this legend. It was produced by Toei Animation and tells the story of Bai-Niang and Xu Xian. The story, while keeping the original message the same, is met with many new changes. Xu Xian is a kind-hearted boy who befriends a mysterious White Snake. Eventually, once older the white snake has turned into this beautiful women named Bai-Niang, a version of Bai Suzhen. A similar conflict arises as Fahai sees Bai-Niang as a threat to natural order and attempts to separate the couple. However, in the end Bai-Niang gives up her powers to remain in human form to prove her love for Xu Xian transforming the story into a fairytale ending.

Emphasis on Romance

While many versions of the White Snake legend delve into supernatural and moral dilemma’s, Hakujaden narrows its focus on the romance between Bai-Niang(Bai Suzhen) and Xu Xian. They both become the central pillar of the film, with the animation devoting a substantial amount of time to their blossoming love for each other. Their longing and love for each other drives the plot, creating a warm, hopeful atmosphere that contrasts with older tellings’ heavier themes.

By adding this blossoming love at the start of the film, even as Fahai attempts to separate Xu Xian and Bai-Niang, the film is able to keep it’s fairy-tale charm. Instead of exploring the weight of cosmic law or morality, the film highlights compassion, devotion, and the obstacles keeping the couple apart. In the end Bai-Niang gives up her powers to revive Xu Xian. Fahai seeing this stops his fight against Bai-Niang as the two lovers are reunited and everyone including Fahai bids them farewell. By emphasizing gentle affection and simplicity, Hakujaden reshapes the legend into a story of love’s triumph, making it feel more like a fairy tale than a spiritual legend. This approach is aligned well with a broader trend of many stories of the time which often highlights the triumph of love no matter the cause.

Side Characters and Comic Relief

One of the most notable shifts from older versions of the legend is the introduction of lighthearted side characters in Hakujaden. Among them are cute pandas and other animals who inject humorous interludes throughout the story, softening moments of conflict or tension. In older Chinese versions, however, this “supporting role” often fell to Xiao Qing, the Green Snake. Xiao Qing was another snake spirit who served as Bai Suzhen’s loyal confidant. She is another example of evolution of the story as her role ranges widely from loyal confidante to sometimes even a rebellious figure. However, in Hakujaden, Xiao Qing is relegated to a less important role but she still is a close friend of Bai-Niang. In older telling’s, rather than providing simple comic relief, Xiao Qing frequently employed her wit and magic to protect Bai Suzhen, emphasizing the shared bond and determination between the two spirits. Hakujaden, by contrast, opts for playful animal companions to heighten the film’s family-friendly appeal. This comedic pivot ensures that heavier themes do not overwhelm the viewer, preserving the adaptation’s warm, fairy-tale tone.

Artistic Style, Animation Techniques, and Global Retelling

A defining feature of Hakujaden is its pioneering role in Japanese animation, highlighting the remarkable creative decisions made by Toei Animation. Released in 1958, it was one of the first full-length color anime films, which was a significant achievement when animators still had to hand-paint every frame. This intensive production process yielded a vibrant, painted look that stands apart from the more traditional retellings of the White Snake legend—such as Peking Opera, which usually has bold costumes and striking makeup.

Hakujaden on the other hand uses softer colors and pastel tones, which give the film an almost dreamlike setting. The gentle color scheme captures the serene West Lake setting. This builds on the fairytale tone allowing the animation to reinterpret the story as a romantic love story where love beats all rather than a more dreary tragic love story that it used to be interpreted as. Instead of the dramatic theater someone might expect from opera, the film employs soft painted animation to focus to the power of love rather than heavier spiritual themes. Through this visually appealing style, Hakujaden not only reintroduces an old Chinese story to a newer, younger audience but also reinterprets it with a more modern lens. The result bridges cultural contexts, presenting the legend as a hopeful romantic tale that emphasizes the themes of love, devotion, and transformation.

Full version of Hakujaden:

Journey to the West: The Original Work

game cover

Black Myth: Wukong is adapted from Journey to the West, one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels. Sun Wukong is the most popular character in the original story. In the novel, Sun Wukong is born from a divine stone on Huaguo Mountain and, from the moment of his birth, demonstrates a spirit and courage unlike ordinary monkeys. He learns the 72 Transformations and the Somersault Cloud under Bodhi Patriarch. After returning from his training, dissatisfied with the position assigned to him by the Heavenly Court and driven by his own arrogance, he rebels against Heaven, only to be subdued by the Buddha and imprisoned under the Five Elements Mountain. Five hundred years later, Tang Sanzang rescues him, places a tightening headband on him, and together they set out to retrieve the Buddhist scriptures from the West. Throughout their journey, they vanquish demons and monsters. Once the pilgrimage is completed, Sun Wukong attains Buddhahood and undergoes a transformation from a stubborn rebel to an enlightened figure. He is beloved not only because he wields enormous magical power but also because, during the journey, his personality shifts from arrogant and capricious to responsible and mature—ultimately completing his own redemption. This theme of self-redemption is very well-received in China; there is even an idiom, “A prodigal son’s return is priceless,” which means that if someone strays from the right path but later awakens and repents, he can still be considered a good person.

Achievements and Influence of Black Myth: Wukong

Black Myth: Wukong, as a game adapted from Journey to the West, has achieved enormous commercial success. As of January 11, 2025, Black Myth: Wukong has sold 28 million copies—an achievement no Chinese single-player game had ever reached before. It also broke the nearly decade-long drought of AAA games in China. (A AAA game is a high-budget, high-investment single-player title developed by a top-tier team using advanced technology.) After Black Myth: Wukong’s success, many other single-player games—such as Shadow Blade Zero, Lost Song, and Ming Dynasty Abyss: The Feathers—sprang up like mushrooms after the rain. Thus, Black Myth: Wukong is not merely a commercial success; it has also validated a successful path for the Chinese AAA game industry. The question remains: is its success mainly due to the enthusiastic support of domestic Chinese fans, or is it the result of its excellent game content?

game promotional image

Origins

Before the emergence of Black Myth: Wukong, the AAA category was largely dominated by Western and Japanese game companies. This was not because Chinese game companies lacked technology or funding—note that both Tencent, the highest-grossing game company in the world, and NetEase, the fifth highest-grossing, are from China. However, they were reluctant to enter the AAA space. On one hand, single-purchase AAA games have a lower profit margin than online games that thrive on continuous consumer spending; on the other hand, no Chinese company had found success in this genre for almost a decade. Thus, despite having the world’s most profitable gaming companies and the largest market, China’s AAA sector was practically empty. Among Chinese gamers, a phrase circulated: “China has no AAA.” This reflected both the awkward state of the Chinese AAA game industry and players’ hopes for a homegrown AAA title.

On August 20, 2020, a small and previously unknown studio called Game Science released the first gameplay demo of Black Myth: Wukong. Though no one had heard of the company at that time, the familiar figure of Sun Wukong—alongside advanced graphics and dazzling combat sequences—instantly caused a sensation on the internet. The video rapidly exceeded ten million views on Chinese streaming sites, and by 2024, that figure had grown to 58 million.

The Game’s Release – Meeting Expectations

Although the trailer proved highly effective for publicity, many game review companies and independent media content creators suspected that the footage might be exaggerated or even falsified. All doubts, however, disappeared upon the game’s release. Black Myth: Wukong surpassed even the trailer’s visuals and offered a large number of boss fights, winning over players.

Cultural Promotion

Black Myth: Wukong not only excels in gameplay but also makes a remarkable contribution to promoting traditional Chinese culture. Every monster in the game—be it a minor, unnamed demon—has its own background story. These stories are written in ancient Chinese (wenyanwen), preserving a significant amount of ancient linguistic art. This is challenging even for many Chinese players to fully understand, yet the mystery has driven many Western players to explore the original Journey to the West and attempt to interpret its meaning.

example of background story with wenyanwen

Additionally, the game is packed with elements of Chinese painting, classical gardens, and Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Many scenes are recreation of ancient architectures : developers used specialized equipment to replicate the real-life architecture into the game.

comparison between game scene and reallife architecture

At the end of each chapter, players receive an animated short film and an interactive mural scroll.
Such applications of historical and Chinese cultural elements in the game have sparked a keen interest in Eastern culture among numerous Western players, many of whom have begun learning about Journey to the West and Buddhist culture on their own.

animated film from chapter one

Adapted Story

Unlike the original Journey to the West, Black Myth: Wukong tells a story set after Sun Wukong has already become a Buddha. Having been conferred Buddhahood, he longs for a free life, voluntarily relinquishes his status, and returns to a reclusive existence. However, the Heavenly gods do not permit this, and they massacre his brethren on Huaguo Mountain. Enraged, Sun Wukong wages war against Heaven and is ultimately killed. His body is torn into six artifacts. The protagonist of Black Myth: Wukong is a nameless little monkey from Huaguo Mountain whose mission is to gather these artifacts and resurrect him. In the finale, Sun Wukong is revived, casts off the tightening headband, and at last gains his freedom.

Whereas in the original story he repents and joins the ostensibly righteous Buddhist order, this version focuses more on Sun Wukong’s own will and pursuit of freedom, which aligns more with modern notions emphasizing free will. The game also incorporates various modern elements. For example, the design of the white bone spirit’s fourth sister caters to contemporary gamer aesthetics, and the game portrays Pigsy (Zhu Bajie) as being in a relationship with the Spider, devoting significant narrative space to their love story, which players find moving. Although some traditionalists criticize these changes as distorting the original content and central themes, it cannot be denied that the game respects history in many ways—such as faithfully recreating the ancient architecture and retaining the ancient Chinese language—and its modern touch has led to major success, making this story known to tens of millions of gamers worldwide.

animated film from chapter four about Bajie’s love story

The Impact of Black Myth: Wukong

From a commercial perspective, Black Myth: Wukong earned profits several times over its development costs. Culturally, it aroused the curiosity of tens of millions of players around the world about traditional Chinese fantasy novels. For the industry, it became an enlightening example for the next decade of Chinese AAA game development. Though controversial, Black Myth: Wukong still stands as a romantic “love letter” from Game Science (its developers) to Chinese gamers.

The story of Mulan had origins far past the most recent mainstream retelling from Disney’s Mulan (2020). Although there is debate whether the story of Mulan is a true story, recent historians suggest she was not. The story of Mulan started with a poem dating far back between the 4th and 6th centuries.

Guo Maoqian created this compilation of poetry somewhere between 960 and 1279 CE. The poem found above originated well before this time, but the lack of physical writing made this version the oldest surviving copy.

The Origins

As seen in the poem, the original story follows Mulan as she volunteers for her father, who is called into battle. The emperor in the story is referred to as “Khan” (also could be called Kehan or Kaghan). Many scholars assert that this early story had roots in the Northern Wei dynasty and that Mulan must have been from the nomadic society called the Tuoba.

The Tuoba clan were a group of Xianbei people who travelled from northern China, and historians argue women held respect in the society as the story was named after the heroine. This Northern Wei dynasty was sandwiched between the turbulent Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) fall and the rise of the Sui dynasty (589-618 CE). The Northern Wei dynasty had Turkish influence, which caused significant changes in the previous Han Chinese people. The Northern Wei dynasty led to the synthesis of two unique cultures that produced new music and poetry. Much of this new art portrayed the independence and strength of the northern women. One interesting note is that although Mulan translates to “Mongolia” in Chinese, recent evidence points to the Turkish influence on language, pointing to “Mulan” being a masculine name at the time. This lent to Mulan’s ability, in the poem, to hide her gender, as evidenced by the final lines.

“The
he‑hare’s
feet
go
hop
and
skip,
The
she‑hare’s
eyes
are
muddled
and
fuddled.
Two
hares
running
side
by
side
close
to
the
ground,
How
can
they
tell
if
I
am
he
or
she?”

The Poem’s Simplicity

Mulan is seen sighing, and while the rest of her family assumes the sighs stem from a romantic partner, she explains that she heard about the call from the emperor. She notes her family’s lack of a son to fight, so she describes her desire to buy a horse and fight in place of her father. She follows through with the preparations for the war and garners success in being in the army. Despite being considered for a promotion, Mulan declines and decides to journey back home, where she is met by her family. She finally discloses her true identity, leaving her comrades shocked but amazed.

The poem’s main themes include subtle gender roles but focus mainly on filial piety. At the beginning of the poem, her family assumes she is thinking of romantic interests. Several lines of the poem describe her reasons for fighting in the war. She wants to protect her father and keep him from the war. She thinks less of herself and more of her family. At her core, her family is the reason to fight rather than nationalistic beliefs or wanting honor.

Future Works

There is no shortage of new adaptations following the original poems. These novel works span movies, plays, and songs. The different adaptations take creative liberty, adding their own unique interpretations.

For example, The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place, written in the 16th Century as a play, emphasizes Mulan’s place as a woman and took her out of the Northern Wei dynasty timeline. In this play, she unbinds her feet, a major symbol of her transformation from hiding herself.

Many of these earlier adaptations altered the main theme of filial piety to nationalism. Notably, Mulan Joins the Army, a film adaptation, places Mulan in China during Japan’s occupation of China. This film contained significant nationalistic undertones. This film depicts Mulan driving out invaders, and instead of protecting her family, she seeks to protect her country.

Some of the most notable works that have influenced Disney’s movie adaptations are found below.

The play The Female Mulan introduces a wholly new take on the revered story. In previous tellings, such as The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place or in “The Historical Romance of the Sui and Tang,” Mulan dies by suicide to either prove her loyalty to the emperor or escape becoming a concubine, respectively. The Female Mulan (16th century CE) introduced a novel ending to the previously tragic story. Rather than dying at the end, this play ends with Mulan’s eventual happiness and marriage. This rather revolutionary play also added Mulan’s surname, Hua, which means flower.

These many works paved the way for the most recent film adaptations, Disney’s 1998 Mulan and their 2020 live-action Mulan.

Mulan: Expanding the Heroine’s Story

Although the most recent Disney Mulan was released in 2020, the original Disney take on the historical story first appeared in 1998. This 1998 version had several new elements that the 2020 Mulan eventually moved away from. This 1998 Mulan introduced the story to a wider audience, so its interpretation is the major focus.

Mulan (1998) and its Musical Interpretations

The creators of this movie chose to turn this into a musical, possibly paying homage to the original art form of a poem, ballad, or song. There are numerous songs in the movie that emphasize key details of the story and make the film unique, catering to a new, younger audience.

The film starts with Mulan, the main character, starting a very important day. She is meeting her matchmaker and is extremely nervous. She allows her mother and grandmother to prepare her for this meeting, but her time with the matchmaker does not go as planned. This first song seeks to portray Mulan as a feminine, beautiful character. She is doing her duty of bringing honor to her family, so the film delves deeper into the original ideas of filial piety. With this song, the audience begins to understand the place and “duty” of women in this era of China.

A girl can bring her family
Great honor in one way
By striking a good match
And this could be the day
Men want girls with good taste
Calm
Obedient
With good breeding 
And a tiny waist
You'll bring honor to us all

The next major song depicts Mulan in despair after she fails to make a good impression on the matchmaker. She laments that she can not be a good wife. The songwriters and creators likely meant for this song to represent a large number of young women who weren’t able to fit themselves into the strict role of “good daughter.” They most likely wanted to give a voice to women forgotten, not only in China but internationally. This song, even in modern interpretations, represents the desire to be seen, valued, and worthy of respect and honor for being one’s authentic self. Mulan’s desires can reflect many, if not all, young girls today. The inclusion of this popular song creates new meaning beyond the original poem by asserting that even before she disguised herself as a man, she sought to be seen for who she truly was.

After the introductory day, Mulan’s father is called to the war, but it is revealed that he previously fought and was injured in another war. Mulan attempts to protect him but brings more shame to her family. She, privately devises a plan to go in his place, replacing her father’s invitation with her flower hair comb.

The film also includes a beloved character named Mushu. Mushu is a small dragon who is inadvertently sent by Mulan’s ancestors to protect her after she leaves. Disney is an American company; therefore, Mulan most likely targeted the American people as the main audience. Mushu becomes a child-friendly character that represents an undeniably popular Chinese symbol. He is easy to love and gives the story a debatably more “Chinese” feel.

With Mushu by her side, Mulan begins training with the army, where she meets three other soldiers. These soldiers represent her “comrades” as referenced in the original Ballad of Mulan.

Mulan then meets Shang, the new general of the army, after his father passes in battle. She and Shang have a rocky relationship at the start, but soon, Mulan gains his respect with her transition to a strong soldier. The movie uses the song “I’ll Make a Man Out of You” to describe her improvement as a soldier. Where the original poem described Mulan’s journey to being a soldier with how she bought what she needed, the film shows Mulan’s transformation in music.

Mulan goes on to save the life of Shang, but she is found to be a woman. The film deliberately exposes her and denotes that she should be killed according to the law. Shang chooses not to kill her. With this mercy, Mulan could return home, but she chooses to fight for the very country that could have killed her.

It is in her decision to save China despite being free to return home that draws on the previous adaptations that change Mulan’s intentions to nationalism and pride in her country. These previous works that shifted from filial piety to nationalism seep into this film adaptation as she tries to save China by herself, met with annoyance and distrust because of her gender.

In one of the most notable and empowering moments for Mulan, her comrades decide to take her advice and dress as women to get past the enemies and save the emperor.

The film introduces an entirely new idea to the story of Mulan by turning the transformation from woman to man on its head. Mulan comes up with a plan to save the Emperor, who was taken by the Huns, China’s enemies. Like the previous adaptations, this movie seeks to inspire women. One unique aspect that Mulan (1998) includes is highlighting her intellect. Not only does Mulan change her appearance, but she also begins using her knowledge and intuition to save China. She rejected the notion that her value came from her ability to be wed and embraced her skill, determination, and love for her country and her family.

The end of the movie draws on the poem’s ending. Mulan is granted much respect and honor from the Emperor himself and is offered a high position in the government. She declines and asks to be allowed to go home, which the Emperor gladly grants. The movie diverges from the poem when the Emperor gifts Mulan with the Emperor’s crest and the sword of the defeated leader of the Huns. The movie includes this exchange to give Mulan proof to show to her family her accomplishments.

The closing part of the movie takes inspiration from both the original poem and the play The Female Mulan. Mulan is welcomed home by her father, mother, and grandmother.

In a beautiful ending, her father welcomes her back with wide arms. The sword and Emperor’s crest are forgone because his daughter is safe and well. The movie adopts an optimistic ending rather than Mulan dying by suicide. It brings its origins to the original poem where Mulan is welcomed home by her family.

Similar to The Female Mulan, the ending of the movie also includes the possibility of a marriage between Mulan and General Shang. As opposed to previous works of the story of Mulan, the movie does not confirm that the two actually wed. Instead, the ending is left open. This allows for further women empowerment by arguing that marriage does not give women their worth and value. Mulan ends the story with immense honor and without a husband, and the ending solidifies this concept.

Reinterpretations and Novel Meanings

Mulan (1998) is laden with unique takes on the historic poem. The movie remains true to the original poem in many ways. The movie incorporates both ideas of filial piety and nationalism. The film brings aspects like Mulan’s horse and her family to life on the screen. It also incorporates her comrades and their understood support in the poem.

One of the major alterations the movie includes is when Mulan convinces her comrades to dress as women. Once dressed as women, they are treated as weaker and not seen as a threat. This allows them to successfully defeat the enemies and rescue the Emperor. This change showcases Mulan’s intelligence while proving to the entirety of China the power of women.

Another new interpretation the film adds is the idea that Mulan’s life is more important than the respect of the Emperor or nation. This movie indicates that family and filial piety supercedes one’s duty to his or her country. This idea is subtle, yet it seems rooted in the original poem prior to the subsequent adaptations. This is further supported when Mulan returns home rather than accept a respected government position.

The movie also chooses to depict femininity through personality traits like obedience, cooking ability, and gentleness, as well as physical traits like a “tiny waist.” Unlike in the poem, which only attributes weaving to a feminine character, the movie highlights several aspects that are considered feminine. This divergence and inclusion of more aspects gives the movie a wider range to define and constrict a woman. This calls for Mulan to overcome more than just an occupation throughout the movie.

Overall, Mulan (1998) pays ample respect to the original poem but still has room to portray the story in a new light. The role of women in China and their ability to break barriers remains nuanced, allowing for artistic interpretation and alterations whenever an adaptation is created. As women continue to achieve accomplishments unheard of before, The Ballad of Mulan will continue to encourage women and young girls in its original form and its adaptations.

“My fate is determined by me, not by heaven!”

Ne Zha is a legendary character from the 16th century Chinese novel Fengshen Yanyi (The Investiture of the Gods), which combined history and mythology. Ne Zha, who was initially portrayed as a disobedient child born in an unusual situation, battles against the Dragon King and other oppressive powers. This project examines how the character has been reimagined for modern audiences by contrasting that traditional narrative with its contemporary reinterpretation in Ne Zha 2.

Intro to the Original Story

One of the best-known Chinese mythological characters is Nezha. He did not enter the world in the usual manner during the Shang dynasty. Instead, his mother gave birth to a large ball of flesh after more than three years’ gestation. When his father, General Li Jing, cut it open because he believed it was a monster, Nezha, already a walking, talking boy, jump out!

Nezha had a forceful personality and special abilities. He once unwittingly woke the Dragon King of the East Sea while cooling off in a river. This caused a battle in which Nezha killed Ao Bing, the son of the Dragon King. The Dragon Kings were so enraged that they threatened to flood Nezha’s hometown. Nezha killed himself and returned his body to his parents as a way of repentance in order to save his village and family. Then, Nezha asked his mother in a dream to build a temple for his ghost. The temple became highly popular after she secretly constructed it. However, his father, still angry at all the disasters Nezha had caused, destroyed the temple when he found out. Nezha later sought revenge for that.

Fortunately, the teacher of Nezha used lotus roots to build him a new body and brought him back to life. Nezha continued to battle his father when he gave him some awesome new weapons. Nezha eventually reconciled with his father who became the Pagoda-Wielding Heavenly King with the help of powerful gods. Nezha, in the face of injustice and self-denial for the benefit of the community, became the Chinese legendary hero in spite of his stormy life.

Global Retelling: Ne Zha 2.

How Ne Zha 2 Reinterprets the Myth

When Nezha 2 was released, it attracted a large number of audiences with its unique modification and innovation. It is no longer a simple copy of the original story with modern animation effects. This movie is trying express Nezha’s story from a more down-to-earth and relatable approach as the characters from the original story were too noble and unrealistically out of touch with reality.

In this movie, Nezha is no longer the little hero who was born with justice, but has become a little devil who is the reincarnation of a magic pill. His parents, Li Jing and Madam Yin, have been worried about him. They were afraid of that he cannot be accepted by the people. Nezha has been locked up in their house since he was a child and cannot go out, which makes his character rebellious and lonely. And Ao Bing is no longer the simple third prince of the East China Sea. He has become the reincarnation of a spirit bead and shoulders the responsibility of revitalizing the dragon clan.

Nezha and Ao Bing, who were pure enemies in the original story, have become both enemies and friends in the movie. The interaction and emotional entanglement between them have become a major twist of the movie. The plot of the movie is also very different from the original. The reason why Nezha caused trouble in the sea was no longer a simple conflict caused by him cooling off, but because his identity as a magic pill was misunderstood by everyone, and his inner loneliness and anger made him vent at the seaside, thus causing a conflict with the dragon clan.

Moreover, many new characters and plots were added to the movie, such as the villain Shen Gongbao, whose conspiracy and tricks promoted the development of the whole story. There was also the battle between Nezha and Ao Bing at the birthday banquet, which made the audience feel very satisfied about their fighting scene thanks to the modern animation technologies and 3D visual effects.

Critiques from the old audience

In the minds of old audiences, Nezha is the innocent and righteous little hero. Every action and expression of his is cute. But in Nezha 2, Nezha becomes a little devil with foul language and extremely weird behavior. Although this image has its unique charm, it is really hard to accept for the audience who grew up watching the old version of Nezha.

In the original novel, the plot of Nezha making trouble in the sea is simple and direct. It is because he disturbed the East China Sea by taking a bath, and he had a conflict with Ao Bing, and then killed Ao Bing. But in the new movie, too many complex backgrounds and character relationships are added. Old audiences feel that such an adaptation makes an originally simple and pure story too complicated. Moreover, the relationship between Nezha and Ao Bing in the movie has changed from hostility to both enemy and friend, which makes many old audiences difficult to understand. In their opinion, Nezha and Ao Bing are natural enemies, and this relationship cannot be easily changed, just like cats and mice. If you suddenly make them good friends, you always feel that something is wrong.

Some of Nezha’s lines in the movie are full of modern Internet slang. Although they sound funny, they always feel out of place with that mythological era.

Impact on young and global audiences

From the perspective of the film industry, adapting classic works is a common way of creation. It can give new vitality to old stories and attract more audiences of different ages and backgrounds. Nezha 2 is a good example. It successfully attracted a large number of young audiences to the cinema through a unique adaptation. These young audiences may not be familiar with the original story Fengsheng Yanyi, but through this movie, they have become interested in the story of Nezha, and thus have the possibility to read the original novel, which has a positive effect on spreading Chinese culture.

Moreover, adaptation also gives creators more room to play. They can innovate and adjust the story according to the preferences and market needs of the current audience. In Nezha 2, the creators added a lot of modern themes such as family affection, friendship, and self-identity to make this ancient myth closer to the lives of modern people. For example, the complex emotions between Nezha and his parents, he longed for his parents’ recognition, and his parents tried their best to protect him. This portrayal of family affection resonated with many audiences. There is also the friendship between Nezha and Ao Bing. When facing the challenges of fate, they understand and support each other, and this friendship is also touching.

Water Margin The Novel Plot Summary

A very brief overview of the full novel plot

What the film covers:

Water Margin by the Shaw Brothers covers one of the more notable 4 chapters of the original novel, chapters 64 through 68. The plot covers how the “Jade Unicorn” Lu Junyi became one of the bandits.

The film starts with an ambush by Shi Wengong on the leader of the bandits, Chao Gai, which ends up killing him. The two bandits that end up as the leaders of the Bandits, Song Jiang and Wu Yong, decide to try and avenge Chao Gai’s death. To properly avenge Chao Gai’s death, they need a skilled martial artist, so they seek out Lu Junyi, who is the former student of Shi Wengong, and his servant Yan Qing.

To seek out Lu Junyi, Wu Yong, disguises himself as a fortune teller and sneaks into the Northern Capital with his assistant Li Kui. Wu Yong, maintaining his fortune teller guise, tells Lu Junyi he must travel southeast to avoid personal tragedy. Yan Qing can see through the fortune teller’s disguise and the pair’s fight, with Wu Yong and Li Kui handily losing. Wu Yong managed to talk Lu Junyi into releasing them, but their presence in the capital was reported to the authorities by Li Gu, who also happens to be having an affair with Lu Junyi’s wife. Li Gu reports the bandits and their release as a way to frame Lu Junyi and steal his money. Lu Junyi’s assistant, Yan Qing, then embarks on a journey to try and free Lu Junyi. Along the way, he meets another bandit, Shi Xiu, who also tries to free Lu Junyi. Eventually, Yan Qing gathers a large group of Liangshan bandits, and through well-planned strategic attacks, can free Lu Junyi. Lu Junyi then kill the man who was sleeping with his wife, and his assistant kills his wife.

The outlaws then leave the northern capital, and upon their exit, run into She Wengong. There is a large final battle scene which leaves She Wengong gravely injured. Upon seeing Lu Junyi as the new leader of the Liangshan bandits, She Wengong commits suicide, and the bandits return to their stronghold.

Character List:

• Lu Junyi (Talent martial artist the bandits are trying to recruit)
• Yan Qing (Servant or student of Lu Yunji)
• Chao Gai (Former leader of the Bandits)
• Shi Wengong (Villain)
• Song Jiang (Interim leader of Bandits)
• Wu Yong (Interim leader and face fortune teller)
• Li Kui (Wu Yong’s servant)
• Li Gu (Adulator)
• Shi Xiu (Bandit)
• Li Chong (Bandit)
• Hu Sanniang (Bandit)
• Wu Song (Bandit)

Film Review and Analysis:

Without having read the full original novel, the film Water Margin, released by the Shaw Brothers in 1972, is entertaining. While only covering four chapters of the novel, the film feels complete (maybe even a little long). Each character has a distinct personality, almost in a caricature-like sense. The individual traits are emphasized through the character choices and facial expressions. The expressions come across as particularly exaggerated, which can take away from scenes that may otherwise be serious. Despite the goofiness, the larger-than-life personalities are engaging. The film brings the characters’ personalities to the forefront in a way a novel doesn’t quite have to ability to. 

A unique feature of the film is the scale. The film has a large cast, using almost all actors employed by the Shaw brothers at the time. Almost all the actors engaged in martial arts choreography. The film starts and ends with a large fight scene that features a series of one-on-one duels. The middle of the film has a series of martial arts fights that are on the scale of ten versus two. The choreography for both types of fight scenes is precise and well portrayed. The film moves through a series of locations, from city to countryside, which adds to the perception of a large world. The film’s scale was unique for the time and created the foundation for future blockbusters.

The number of characters made the beginning of the film confusing for the casual viewer. Many characters are only briefly shown before the plot quickly starts bouncing between characters and locations. The quick dive into the plots helps build a rich storyline, that keeps the viewers attention. The movie emphasizes the journey, rather than the movie being a means to an end. The focus on the story was an innovative idea at the time of production.

Another fascinating aspect of the film is the music and sound effect choices. The sound effects don’t quite make sense with the action scenes, which adds a comedic feeling to the action shots. The music choices also stand out because it’s a unique blend of traditional Chinese sound and Western music. Bringing a more culturally mixed set of music choices changed the sound of the film and gave a modern feel to a classic storyline. The music choices, along with the release by a massive film company, helped spread the Water Margin story beyond China and increased the audience.

The film stays relatively true to the storyline in the novel, which was made possible by the small portion of the text the film was aiming to cover. The do to the feature explained previously, the film takes on a more humorous and entertaining note than the novel and focuses more on entertainment than the messaging of average people fighting a corrupt government. The movie was a good basis to expand upon and build the foundations for future adaptations. The film does a good job of giving all the individual characters personality, which is an important feature of the novel. The director took some creative liberty in building the personalities of the characters through the actor selections and the screenwriting. As one of the earliest film adaptations of Water Margin, the film did a good job of highlighting what could be possible using the stories and characters from the novel.

Other Adaptations of Water Margin:

• (Movie )All Men Are Bothers – Shaw Brothers (Sequel to Water Margin)
• (TV) The Water Margin 1998 – CCTV
• (Video Game) Suikoden 1995 – Konami

What Other viewers had to say:

“I get the feeling that Chang Che just absolutely loves these original books, to the point where he simply cannot adapt them for shit” – threepenny (Letterbox)

“So if you want to see virtually ALL of your early Shaw Brothers favorites in one movie, The Water Margin will treat you right.” – Will (Silver Emulsion Film Reviews)

Brief History of the Shaw Brothers:

The Shaw Brothers were a wildly successful Hong Kong-based Film company. The company was founded in 1920, and initially they were purchasing cinemas. The Shaw Brothers began movie-making in 1925. In 1961 they created the Movietown studio in Hong Kong, which at the time was the biggest privately owned studio. The Show brothers remained prominent filmmakers through the 70s and 80s. Throughout the organization’s time, the Shaw Brothers produced over a thousand films.

The company worked with many prominent actors and directors of the era. The company produced a wide range of genres, but the Shaw Brothers are most widely known for their martial arts action movies. The company was one of the first big-budget action studios, and the company structure served as an example for the now popular style that is Hollywood blockbusters.

References

Anchi Hoh. (2017, July 13). The Story of Water Margin (水滸傳) | 4 Corners of the World: International Collections and Studies at the Library of Congress. Loc.gov. https://blogs.loc.gov/international-collections/2017/07/the-story-of-water-margin-%E6%B0%B4%E6%BB%B8%E5%82%B3/

Shaw Scope: A History of the Shaw Bros. Studio – Harvard Film Archive. (2008, May 30). Harvard Film Archive. https://harvardfilmarchive.org/programs/shaw-scope-a-history-of-the-shaw-bros-studio

The Water Margin (1972). (2025a). Letterboxd.com; Letterboxd. https://letterboxd.com/film/the-water-margin/

The Water Margin (1972). (2025b). IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069265/mediaviewer/rm4294774272/

Where to begin with the Shaw Brothers. (2021, December 21). BFI. https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-shaw-brothers

Will. (2013, September 13). The Water Margin (1972). Silver Emulsion Film Reviews. https://www.silveremulsion.com/2013/09/13/the-water-margin-1972/

“The Monkey King knows no master… not even Heaven itself.”

Among the countless figures of Chinese mythology, no figure is as vibrant, mischievous, or enduring as Sun Wukong, the Monkey King. Born from a magical stone on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit, which was nourished by the energies of heaven and earth, the Monkey King has been a rebel of Heaven, and eventually a companion on a sacred pilgrimage, Sun Wukong has transcended the pages of the 16th century classic Journey to the West into countless retellings across film, opera, animation, and now a cutting-edge action video game—Black Myth: Wukong. This project brilliantly recreates a centuries-old character through immersive storytelling and beautiful visuals, bringing ancient myths onto the screens of a global audience. 

Who is Sun Wukong?

Sun Wukong makes his first appearance in Journey to the West (西游记), written by Wu Cheng’en during the Ming Dynasty. The translation we read in class masterfully blends adventure, philosophy, and satire into one of the greatest and most impressive literary works of Chinese history. Wukong is introduced as a magical monkey born from a stone. He quickly distinguishes himself amongst his fellow monkey brethren as the Monkey King by mastering powerful martial and magical arts, such as learning to transform into 72 different forms, and acquiring a magical staff that can change size at will.

Perhaps most memorable, however, is his unyielding and boisterous spirit. Wukong disrespects the Jade Emperor, eats the peaches of immortality, and wreaks havoc in Heaven before being imprisoned under a mountain as punishment by the Buddha. Eventually, he is released to accompany the monk Tripitaka on a pilgrimage to India to retrieve sacred scriptures. Throughout this journey, Wukong grows from a rebellious trickster to a loyal protector.

Sun Wukong’s appeal lies in his contradictions: he is a figure of blatant disrespect and great power, and is both chaos-bringer and guardian. These contradictions make him ideal for reinterpretation—and Black Myth: Wukong does just that.

Wukong Reimagined: Black Myth

Black Myth: Wukong is the first video game title from Chinese indie developer Game Science. Announced in 2020 with a stunningly beautiful gameplay trailer, the game instantly attracted international attention for its cinematic-like presentation, fluid combat, and beautiful visuals. Obviously inspired by Journey to the West, the main playable character is a mysterious “Destined One”, a monkey warrior very like Sun Wukong. However, this isn’t a direct retelling of Wukong’s story. Instead, the game presents the player with lots of Chinese myth and folklore, creating a dark world filled to the brim with legendary beasts, ancient deities, and stunning landscapes.

The gameplay is very similar to one of my favorite combat games ever: Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice (2019).

As you can see, it clearly draws inspiration from Sekiro, and the combat of both games can feel like a dance. However, Black Myth: Wukong’s heart lies in its cultural storytelling. From the design of enemies to the music score, Black Myth pulls the player into a world deeply rooted in Chinese beliefs, Taoist symbols, and Buddhist philosophy. Wukong’s signature abilities, such as flying on clouds, shape-shifting, and staff-wielding are all present here, and they translate into souls-like combat mechanics that are incredibly satisfying.

Game Science has been careful about showing the beautiful complexity but also strangeness of Chinese mythology to a global audience. This can be seen in not just the art, but in the narrative of the game, too—mysterious, philosophical, and sometimes morally grey. Unlike many other adaptations that merely turn Wukong into a caricature (League of Legends, Dragon Ball), Black Myth brings back a sense of awe and power to the character.

Tradition Meets Tech: Globalizing the Monkey King

What makes Black Myth so significant is how it navigates the space between being faithful to its origins and balancing creative innovation. This is not just a simple case of “East meets West”. Instead, it’s a new version created in China that’s meant to be shared with the world. The developers, who are based in China, are taking control of their mythological narratives and choosing how to present it on their own terms. The result is a game that doesn’t just “borrow” Chinese culture—it builds from within it.

At the same time, the game does adapt its storytelling for a global audience. The visuals, so beautiful at times, can also be very gritty and moody, and moral ambiguity as a trope has been used many times before. But these elements add to symbolism that is still very authentically Chinese. For example, many characters are drawn from Buddhist iconography, and landscapes often show temples and mountainous regions from Daoist art.

However, mixing these cultures creates new and deeper meanings. Wukong (or whoever we play as) is no longer just a rebellious trickster defying the celestial order for kicks and giggles—he is a tragic hero who is trying his best to navigate a broken world, which we can all identify with. His struggle is not just to attain freedom, but to find his identity, fate, and transcendence. This is particularly relatable for younger audiences, both inside as well as outside of China, who are starting to question tradition as well as authority.

Why Wukong Still Matters

Sun Wukong has been reimagined many times—as a cartoon in Havoc in Heaven, a kung fu legend in The Forbidden Kingdom, and a pop culture icon in Leauge of Legends and Dragon Ball (though, notably, he mainly serves as inspiration for the last two). What makes Black Myth: Wukong special is its stubborn refusal to dilute or change its source material. Instead of simplifying the myth of Wukong, the developers have chosen to deepen it—inviting players to explore the darkness along with the light of a story that has captivated us for centuries. 

The sources to the images used can be found below:

https://sm.ign.com/t/ign_za/review/b/black-myth/black-myth-wukong-review_u4qn.1200.jpg

https://wallpapercave.com/black-myth-wukong-wallpapers

https://www.outregallery.com/cdn/shop/files/JedHenry-TheDestinedOn1.jpg?v=1730171536

https://www.screenslate.com/sites/default/files/2021-08/Havoc-In-Heaven.jpg

https://i0.wp.com/www.flixist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/KFC_Forbidden_006.jpg?resize=1024%2C576&ssl=1

https://ddragon.leagueoflegends.com/cdn/img/champion/splash/MonkeyKing_0.jpg

https://japanesegallery.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/mgzbuilder/Blog/JGKP1119.jpg

(The phrase “Born from a magical stone on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit, which was nourished by the energies of heaven and earth” was found in the google search below)

https://www.google.com/search?q=sun+wukong+born+from+a+rock&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS1097US1097&oq=sun+wukong+&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUqBggCEEUYOzIOCAAQRRgnGDsYgAQYigUyDggBEEUYJxg7GIAEGIoFMgYIAhBFGDsyDAgDEAAYQxiABBiKBTINCAQQABiRAhiABBiKBTIMCAUQLhhDGIAEGIoFMgwIBhAAGEMYgAQYigUyDAgHEAAYQxiABBiKBTIMCAgQABhDGIAEGIoFMgcICRAAGI8C0gEINDU5OWowajGoAgCwAgA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8