Introduction

The 2021 animated movie Green Snake, directed by Amp Wong, builds off of the famous Chinese Legend of the White Snake, exploring the dynamic of the ancient characters through Asuraville, adding themes of emotional strife and modern feminine power.

Foundations of the Legend

The story tells of a White Snake demon who transforms into a beautiful woman and falls in love with a human man, Xu Xian. Fahai, a Buddhist monk, exposes her true nature after forcing her to transform with a potion. Startled, Xu dies of freight leading white snake to go on a dangerous quest to recover a herb to revive him. Green Snake aids her journey. After overcoming obstacles and reviving Xu, White Snake is confronted by Fahai, where the story diverges.

The Old Legend 

Before the 18th century the story’s ending was one of tragedy with the white snake being imprisoned by Fahi under Leifong pagoda after giving birth. This version of the legend is what green snake draws from. The animation begins with the violent battle between the monk and the two snake sisters, ending in defeat. This sets up green snake’s quest to escape Asuraville.

Green Snake Plot

After White Snake (Blanca) is trapped by Fahai, Green Snake (Verta) struggles against him and is transported to the realm of Asuraville, where those who can’t let go of obsession are banished. Zodiac demons roam this cyberpunk realm where spirits attack in waves. To survive, she teams up with Sun, a woman from the 20th century who is later killed during gang warfare between the Ox-Head and Horse-Face Gang and the Raksha. Verta is picked up by the Raksha and proves herself to Simon, their human leader. At Good Day Market, Simon, Verta, and their new masked companion learn that to leave they must surrender their obessions to the Well of Rebirth. Verta refuses to forget Blanca. A flood sweeps over Asuraville, trapping the masked man. Desperate to leave, Simon betrays Verta, blocking the exit as she saves him. When she loses hope, the man reveals a face resembling Blanca’s. Ox-Head invades the market and kills Simon. Verta’s trust shatters when Ox-Head reveals the masked man betrayed her as the magical Blanca disguise he wore gave off a traceable scent. Verta presses on toward the Wish Bridge to escape Asuraville with her memories intact. In the Wind Tunnel when Fahai is weakened, she destroys the Pagoda, breaking his blessing over Ox-Head. As they near the end, the possessed Ox-Head grabs them. The man lets Ox-Head transform him into a spirit, sacrificing himself to carry Verta to the bridge. Back in the human world, Verta restores Blanca’s hairpin with the man’s bone flute, realizing he was her reincarnation. Blanca’s voice calls to Verta, signaling their reunification.

Movie Trailer

Modernizing Feminine Strength

The ancient story flips gender roles, positioning white snake as the more yang character who exudes assertive traits and strength that move her to protect and sacrifice herself for her family. While certainly a progressive story of feminine power for its time, white snake’s feminine strength is demonstrated in the context of motherly love and protection which is the typical picture of what older civilizations viewed as female strength. Verta embodies a character with external motivations beyond maternal duty and romantic love who is strong and decisive in all situations. Verta survives the rough lands of Asuraville by adapting quickly, learning to use modern weapons, forming strategic alliances, and confronting characters like the Baoqing Fox. This reflects how we define and celebrate modern femininity. Female strength is characterized by leadership, resilience, and autonomy rather than being tied only to motherhood.

Modern femininity emerging from the cultural revolution

Modern Emotional Care & Love

Like many western works, Green Snake follows a sort of hero’s journey structure. Centering the plot around Verta reorients the emotional underpinning of the story, creating new meaning through Verta’s introspective struggles. Verta, removed from Blanca’s strong emotional passion for Xu, acts as a critical observer. Seeing others struggle with relinquishing their attachments at the Well of Rebirth and the consequences of Blanca’s love, Verta grapples with her perceptions of love and obsession with saving Blanca. Symbolized by her sister’s scarf tied around her arm, Verta’s obsession with saving Blanca traps her in Asuraville. At the end of the story, as she leaves Blanca in Asuraville, she realizes accepting Blanca’s death, but keeping her memory alive, can bring them both peace. She is reincarnated, completing her emotional development. Others in Asuraville give up memories of loved ones, like Simon, or aspirations to escape. Verta’s rejection of this and eventual acceptance of Blanca’s death embody the modern focus on confronting emotional turmoil through means like therapy, which forces people to relive and journey through their most intense emotions, much like Verta does. The story, however, masterfully crafts this emotional journey through the framing of Buddhist rebirth, with Blanca’s reincarnation into the masked man being the way in which Verta is able to engage with her emotional turmoil. The story challenges modern escapism, which takes the form of drugs and other addictions, ironically through the Well of Rebirth, which allows a person to avoid painfully working through loss.

Well of Rebirth & Modern Escapism

Verta’s assertion that her sister’s entrapment is due to Xu’s lack of strength initially makes her value strength and authority in a partner, which makes her fall for Simon. However, his betrayal shows her, empathy and love for someone outweigh strength. This internal change in Verta’s perception rejects the idea that a man should be a strong provider, reimagining Xu a good partner. Sun and Verta’s partnership further emphasizes the movie’s modern idea that relationships, romantic or platonic, should never be defined by one character overpowering and leading alone. Just like in the movie when the two are separated, partners must have enough independence to fight for themselves at times, but should constantly be backing each other in response to calls for support. 

Few works in Chinese literature have been able to reach the global stage like Journey to the West has. Written by Wu Cheng’en during the Ming Dynasty, the story follows the Monkey King, a mischievous deity who causes trouble wherever he goes in search of whatever currently occupies his mind. On account of his mischief, he eventually meets the Buddhist monk Tripitaka, who is on a pilgrimage to retrieve sacred scriptures from India, and becomes one of his disciples. Accompanying Tripitaka on his journey are his three disciples, the Monkey King Sun Wukong, the man-pig Pigsy, and the river monster Sandy. Together, they face 81 calamities as they make their journey, fighting whatever monsters and demons stand in their way. On the surface, this story is one of fantastical adventures, but it also serves as a complex work that makes use of religious allegory and political satire to teach the listener/reader moral lessons of redemption and spiritual enlightenment.

Released in 2008, Rob Minkoff’s The Forbidden Kingdom presents itself as a global reimagining of Journey to the West, one that replaces Tripitaka’s pilgrimage with a westernized take of the monk’s expedition. The film begins not in China, but in modern-day Boston, where Jason Tripitikas (a direct nod to you know who), a shy American teenager obsessed with kung fu movies, stumbles upon a mysterious golden staff in a Chinatown pawnshop. Afterwards, when Jason is attacked by bullies and falls from a rooftop with the staff in hand, he awakens in a fantasy version of ancient China. There, he learns that the staff belongs to the Monkey King, who has been imprisoned by the Jade Warlord. Jason’s task as the “Seeker” then becomes to return the staff to the Monkey King and end the terror of the Jade Warlord. Along his journey, he’s joined by Lu Yan, a drunken master played by Jackie Chan, the Silent Monk, played by Jet Li, and Golden Sparrow, an orphaned warrior, played by Liu Yifei.

While Journey to the West focuses on spiritual enlightenment, The Forbidden Kingdom reframes the story as a coming-of-age tale with action at the forefront. In the original story, Tripitaka’s pilgrimage is meant to test his moral endurance, with his disciples representing aspects of the human condition (rebellion, greed, balance). By contrast, Jason’s journey is more internal and individualistic. He is not a monk striving for enlightenment and the spread of Buddhism, but an ordinary teenager developing his character through kung fu. His transformation from a passive consumer of Chinese culture to an active participant in it shows a contemporary reworking of the pilgrimage theme from the original story.

Sun Wukong’s role also undergoes a subtle transformation. In Journey to the West, Wukong’s rebellion against heaven and his eventual redemption through service to Tripitaka represents the boundless raw freedom of the human mind coming to know restraint. In this film however, Wukong’s journey is simplified into a struggle between imprisonment and liberation. Instead of there being sacred scriptures that Jason has to retrieve, his objective is to free Wukong and return to him his staff. This decision of having Wukong replace the scriptures could have been made to reduce the religious influence that is present throughout Journey to the West, making the movie more digestible for Western audiences.

Speaking of religious influences, the film made an interesting decision when it came to the dialogue in one scene that is worth analyzing. After Lu Yan revealed that he was not an immortal and Jason responded in shock, Lu Yan said this:

“If one does not attach himself to people and desires, never shall his heart be broken. But then, does he ever truly live? I would rather die a mortal who has cared about someone than a man free from his own death.”

At first glance, it seems that Lu Yan is rejecting the Buddhist teaching that attachment leads to suffering and that they actually are what make a life full. However, upon further examination, Lu Yan is not doing that. He accepts the Buddhist principle that with no attachments and desires, your heart will never be broken. Despite this, he believes that a life with suffering is worth more than a life without it, which reflects the Daoist beliefs of the real-life person this character was based on, Lü Dongbin. Buddhism seeks liberation by cutting off attachments, while Daoism accepts attachments as a part of life, which makes this quote from Lu Yan fit his character perfectly.

Perhaps the most intriguing part of The Forbidden Kingdom is how it deals with cultural boundaries. The film itself is a product of globalization: directed by an American, filmed in China, starring two of Hong Kong cinema’s biggest actors, and written for a worldwide audience. Jason’s presence as a Westerner among mythic Chinese figures brings cultural exchange to the big screen, giving Western audiences a look into thousands of years of Chinese folklore. Where the Buddhist parables and Daoist lessons were in Journey to the West, are now familiar pillars of the Western hero narrative: destiny, mentorship, and sacrifice.

One way the film participates in this cultural exchange is by incorporating characters from other stories in Chinese history, not just from Journey to the West. For example, Lu Yan is based on Lü Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals of Daoist legend, and Ni Chang (one of the antagonists in the film) is based on the White-Haired Witch, an anti-heroine from the popular novel Baifa Monü Zhuan.

In the end, The Forbidden Kingdom is less a retelling of Journey to the West than a reflection of how stories are adapted across cultures. Where Wu Cheng’en imagined a religious pilgrimage for wisdom, the film imagines a cultural pilgrimage where East and West fuse and prove that myths continue to evolve centuries after they were born.

A Modern Adaptation of Nezha Into an Anti-American and Anti-Corruption Message

封神演義 (Fēngshén Yǎnyì, or “Investiture of the Gods”) is a 16th-century Chinese novel set in the Zhou and Shang Dynasties, revolving around Chinese mythology, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism.

“Investiture of the Gods”

The story is set in a world that is divided into immortal and mortal realms, where Daoism is responsible for priests, immortals, and deities. The weakening of the Shang Dynasty and the corrupt nature of King Zhòu (the last ruler of Shang) loses the Heaven’s favor. The issue of the Mandate of Heaven leads to a war between the Shang Dynasty and the new Zhou Dynasty because of Heaven giving Jiāng Zǐyá the mission of overthrowing the Shang Dynasty. 

Nézhā (or Third Lotus Prince) is birthed into this time period, having the destiny of assisting the Zhou Dynasty in overthrowing the Shang Dynasty. At the age of 7, Nézhā kills Prince Áo Bǐng (the son of the Dragon King of the East Sea) and angers the Dragon King of the East Sea. The danger that Nézhā caused to his family prompts him to cuts open his abdomen and flesh as a sacrifice to repay his debt for his troubles. He is reborn as an immortal and is trained by Tàiyǐ Zhēnrén to wield magic weapons and powers. Eventually, Nézhā helps Jiang Ziya’s forces in the war against the Shang Dynasty, fighting off demons and immortals who support the corrupt government. One of the prominent characters he fights is Shēn Gōngbào who convinces the people to oppose the Zhou Dynasty. At the end of the novel Nézhā is given the divine command of becoming a martial deity (Marshal of the Central Altar) because of the reorganization of Heaven after the fall of the Shang Dynasty.

The story of Nézhā is very well known in China, with modern adaptations of the story becoming mainstream. One prime example is the animated movie series Ne Zha and Ne Zha 2 which features Nézhā as the main character.

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Ne Zha 2

Featured in 2025, Ne Zha 2 adapts the story of Nézhā into a modernized piece that embodies modern Chinese radical ideas—diverging from the actual story of Nézhā. However, like many of the common themes of Chinese stories, Ne Zha 2 communicates the justification of rebellion against corrupt elites. These themes appear in the “Journey to the West” where Monkey disobeys the disorganized/corrupt Heaven and in “Investiture of the Gods” where Heaven sets up a rebellion against the corrupt Shang Dynasty.

The origins of Nézhā in the movies diverge from the actual story, rewriting the story to how Nézhā was birthed with the fate to die within three years to heavenly lightning. The relationship between Áo Bǐng and Nézhā develops as a friendship, putting them as allies against Áo Guāng and the Daoist Chan sect. Instead of the journey following the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty, the movie follows Nézhā and Áo Bǐng journey to protect Chentang (Nézhā’s birth town) from Áo Guāng and to complete trials to become immortal. However, Áo Guāng is actually framed by the Daoist Chan sect, as the immortals and priests seek to keep their immortality and power.
Anti-Corruption

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Anti-Corruption

The long history of corruption in Chinese Dynasties influences many stories to have anti-corrupt ideas that justify people’s rebellion against a corrupt government. Ne Zha 2 develops this theme by displaying the corruption of the Daoist Chan sect, a heavenly sect consisting of immortals and Daoist priests. Similarly to the “Investiture of the Gods,” the “good” figures in heaven are revealed to have immoral intentions, validating Ne Zha’s fight against the Chan sect. Ne Zha 2 keeping the original themes of the “Investiture of the Gods” displays the government’s attempt at developing anti-corruption mindsets.

The exposure of a heavenly immortal, Wuliang, as a corrupt official in the Chan sect, highlights how “good” and high ranking officials can be corrupt. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promotes the behavior of exposing and rebelling against these individuals; thus, the reason why Ne Zha 2 shifts the original story from just rebelling against the heavenly sect to exposing the corrupt nature of heaven and rebelling against its desires. The support of these ideas are seen in multiple modernizations of Chinese stories, such as the Journey to the West, which is changed to promote this rebellious behavior—a representation of the CCP’s revolution. Furthermore, by connecting the Chinese concept of how corruption is punished by fate—Heaven’s order to overthrow the Shang Dynasty—influences people to actively stop themselves from committing corrupt acts. The themes in Ne Zha 2 legitimizes the CCP through promoting behaviors that follow an anti-corrupt mindset: punishment of corruption and exposing corruption.

Anti-American

The development of anti-corruption in Ne Zha 2 contributes to the anti-American themes present throughout the show. The heavenly-sect symbolizes America, building a negative image of the democratic government as a corrupt and power-hungry institution. The divergence from the portrayal of Chinese Dynasties being corrupt to modern imperial governments—America in this case—displays the growth of Chinese nationalism and influence of the Chinese government.

Instances of the heavenly-sect displays subtle imagery that resembles American values. The Jade Palace in Ne Zha 2 looks very similar to the U.S. Pentagon, and the Jade Pass has a symbol that looks similar to the American passport. The representation of the heavenly-sect as the American government displays America as an imperialist country that seeks to maintain power. The movie follows Nézhā going through multiple trials to obtain immortality—something that the heavenly-sect already has—correlating to China’s attempt at being at the top of the global division of labor system which the U.S. runs.

Nézhā being born from the demon orb leads to discrimination because of his fate of being “evil,” however, his transformation at the end of the movie makes him the leader of the resistance against heaven. Similarly, due to China’s communist government, many countries dislike the country’s values, as the world norm is to follow free market and democratic values. However, Ne Zha 2 attempts to break this norm, showcasing how Nézhā, a demon-born, actually leads the way rather than a corrupt institution. Therefore, Nézhā plays the role of symbolizing China as the actual hero of the story that leads the developing countries rather than the U.S. who claims they’re the “light/heaven” of the world.

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With anti-corruption and anti-American themes being present in Ne Zha 2, ancient Chinese stories are modernized as pieces of propaganda for current governments and ideals. The story of Nézhā is modernized to display the dynamics of the global world, posing as propaganda for the CCP and its superiority over democratic institutions.

By: Ava Thai

The story of “The Butterfly Lovers,” often referred to as “Chinese Romeo and Juliet,” is an infamous love story in China that demonstrates the strength of love.

The Original Story

This story follows two main characters, Zhu Yingtai and Liang Shanbo, schoolmates turned lovers in Ningbo City in the Zhejiang Province during the Eastern Jin Dynasty (266-420 AD). Zhu Yingtai was the daughter of a loving, wealthy family with an insatiable curiosity. During this time, women were expected to learn housewife skills, preserving education for men. Her family allowed her to cross-dress as a man and attend school, having everyone believe she was a man. In school, she met Liang Shanbo. They instantly hit it off, becoming best friends and spending every day together. Slowly but surely, Yingtai fell deeply in love with Shanbo.

Zhu Yingtai’s father betrothed her to Ma Wencai, another wealthy family in the city. Since she planned to be wed, she had to leave school soon, leaving Liang Shanbo. She did not want to leave without telling him the truth about her. The week leading up to her departure, she took a walk with him, referring to them as “Mandarin Ducks”, trying to get him to realize what she was trying to confess to her. Alas, he did not, and she told him that she had a sister identical to her that he would pair well with. Yingtai convinced him to come to her hometown to meet her “sister”, trying to confess her truth to him. On his way home from school, Shanbo realized what Yingtai was trying to tell him. Finding out this information, he realized that he loved her and did not want to lose her. Shanbo tried to gain Yingtai’s parents’ blessing for their marriage, but they would not allow it. Shanbo was not of wealthy status, causing their rejection of him.

Due to the disappointing news, Shanbo fell depressed and died from grief of not being able to marry his love. He asked to be buried by the road outside of Zhu Yingtai’s fiancé, forcing her to pass by his grave on the day of their wedding. On the wedding day, an intense wind and rain storm came over the city. As Yingtai passed his grave, she fell to her knees due to sadness. When she did this, a bright light appeared and the grave miraculously opened. Yingtai immediately jumped in, breaking all social norms and rejoining her true love. The storm reached its peak, with thunder and wind going crazy. After she disappeared, the storm calmed and the sun shined on the city once again. Two butterflies emerged from the grave, dancing around and never being separated since. They fluttered around the grave, symbolizing eternal love.

Passerby’s witnessing the transformation spread the story rapidly, allowing the audience to hear the timeless tale about true love.

The Love Eterne

The Love Eterne is a Hong Kong film released in 1963 and directed by Li Han-hsiang inspired by “The Butterfly Lovers.” It won “The Golden Horse Award for Best Director” and “The Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actress.” Although it follows the typical plot of the original story of Yingtai cross-dressing as a man and falling in love with her lower-class schoolmate, it dives deeper into gender roles, feminism, and social constraints.

National Impact

The Love Eterne quickly became a box-office success in Taiwan. It provided a sense of Chinese cultural identity as the movie started to migrate to international audiences. Many Chinese citizens fled from mainland China due to political challenges taking place in the 1960s. This film allowed them to regain their sense of cultural identity from the glamorized, “dreamlike” representation of China in the film.

At this time, Hong Kong and Taiwan were trying to become sovereign nations from China. The Shaw Brother’s movies, like this one, promoted the Cold War ideals while China was being converted to Communism. It helped display the notion that Taiwan was the only place where true Chinese culture was represented with Confucian morals and traditional Chinese stories. This story was turned into a political strategy to prevent China from being taken over by the Communist regime. The Shaw Brothers served as Chinese exiles, like many in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Their success with this movie paved the way for the Taiwanese film industry, giving them a sense of national unity and cultural identity. It shifted their post-war identity, where the film industry displayed the political and economic state of their country after this movie was released.

This film converted many Taiwanese citizens into major fans of Ivy Ling Po. They appreciated that she could display the true meaning of Chinese culture through film. This was Taiwan’s and other Chinese exiles’ first films that could accurately depict true Chinese culture before they were pushed out by Communist regimes. Since this film was released during the Communist regime taking over China and forcing the Nationalists out, it gave them new hope for their new home and their cultural identity preservation. She received a Golden Horse Award and many gifts from fans for her work with this film.

Gender Roles

In the original story, Shanbo is depicted as only seeing Yingtai as a friend when she cross-dressed as a man to attend school. In, The Love Eterne, it is depicted as Shanbo being in love with Yingtai, thinking he is a man. It pushes the idea of homosexuality with Shanbo and Yingtai, a concept heavily despised during that period. This change reinterprets the main idea around the first half of the story. The original story is mainly about societal class dividing the two lovers from not allowing each other to be together. But, in the movie, it is reimagined that gender is keeping them apart instead. Shanbo, although is never stated, is openly in love with his male counterpart in school. It has been heavily debated between academics of Shanbo’s actual sexuality in the film. This movie gave the LGBT+ community new visibility on the main screen. During this time, they were facing many challenges, as LGBTQ was a taboo concept. The Love Eterne gave the community a voice and visibility on the screen. The Love Eterne turns the story more into a queer performance than the differences of class like the Communist regime once fought with the Violin Concerto of this story.

This film dipped into the idea of gender-fluidity as well. The actress playing Chu Yingtai was Ivy Ling Po. Men regarded her as a female while females referred to her as a male due to her cross-dressing in the film as Liang Shanbo. Although Director Li Han-hsiang has not directly spoken about why he chose to cast her, it is believed that it was a nod to opera performances where women were cast to play men and vice-versa. Shanbo’s voice turned into a light soprano, contributing to the gender blurring seen through this film. It dips into the idea that gender is a social construct, not a biological quality. This is seen in Ling Po’s performance as a man. Another thought is that it adds to the gender ambiguity already associated with this movie.

This movie contributes to female empowerment, with the two main roles being played by females. It is normally the opposite where males portray female roles as seen in Peking Opera. It displayed the success females can have on films, allowing more roles being offered to females afterwards. Due to the casting of this movie, it is considered a highly progressive movie in Taiwan, paving the way for female actresses in the film industry.

Judith Butler’s Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity

Judith Butler’s Theory about gender states that gender is not defined by a person’s biological anatomy, but by their everyday actions that contribute to their “gender performance.” This theory has been applied many times to both leads in this film. It is applied to Yingtai when she is cross-dressing as a man to attend, and it is applied to Ivy Ling Po in real life. As mentioned above, many viewers did not know how to refer to Po after the movie. Men regarded her as a woman, and women regarded her as a man. This film brings a new definition to gender that was not as present in the original story.

Conclusion

The movie adaption of “The Butterfly Lovers” reinterprets the story from societal class divisions to gender fluidity and ambiguity. The film turned a Chinese folktale into a sign of cultural identity for Chinese exiles, scared of what was next for their country. It gave them a new sense of nationalism for their country and paved the way for their film industry displaying the economic and political state of their country. This film restructured the main concern of the original story. At first, the story mainly focused on class division, but it was reconstructed to be about gender fluidity instead.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Romance of the Three Kingdoms is one of the “Four Great Classical Novels” of Chinese literature. It depicts the plots, deceptions, battles, and stories of the end of the Han Dynasty, when the land was divided and in constant conflict. The novel follows the advisors, emperors, military generals, and other leaders in this divided land as they maneuver around plots, assassinations, and power-hungry schemers as they try to unite the land.

Yu-Gi-Oh!

Yu-Gi-Oh! is originally a Japanese manga created by Kazuki Takahashi, which is the origin for the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game after Konami, a Japanese gaming company, bought the license and rights from Takahashi. Since then, it has become one of the top 3 grossing Trading Card Games worldwide, up there with Pokemon and Magic the Gathering. Pokemon has its cards based off of the Pokemon videos games, and Magic the Gathering has its cards based off medieval fantasy, such as concepts from Dungeons and Dragons (D&D), a game owned by the same company. On the other hand, Yu-Gi-Oh!’s themes are seemingly random. For reference, below are two artworks from that same game.

Ancient Warriors

Sometimes, Yu-Gi-Oh! takes some of its card concepts from fictional stories, such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms. “Ancient Warriors” is a series of cards inspired from the novel that has each of its cards depict a character from the novel, or a significant event in the story. The Japanese name of the cards, “戦
せん火“, roughly translates to “Warring Flower”. Of the characters depicted in the cards, many aspects of the characters are actually referenced in one way or another in their individual cards. For example, characters from the Eastern Wu, such as Zhou Yu and Sun Quan, are depicted with a WATER-Attribute in the top-right. Similarly, those from Shu Han were depicted with a WIND-Attribute, like Zhang Fei and Guang Yu, and those from Cao Wei were depicted with a FIRE-Attribute, like Cao Cao and Zhang Liao. On the other hand, independent characters, like the warlord Dong Zhuo, are assigned the DARK-Attribute. Below are some examples of the more important characters in the novel in card form.

In the beginning of the story, the emperor of the Han Empire, Emperor Shao and his half-brother, were caught up in a rebellion by the Ten Attendants, a group of Court eunuchs. While they escaped with their lives, they were found by the warlord Dong Zhuo. Dong used the opportunity to seize control of Luoyang, the imperial capital, under the guise of protecting the emperor and his half-brother. Eventually, he gained more and more power and influence, casting out Shao and instilling a new puppet emperor, while oppressing the people of the nation for his gain.

“Ancient Warriors – Savage Don Ying” is based off of Dong Zhuo. As mentioned before, the DARK-Attributed listed on the top-right of the card denotes the nation that Dong Zhuo originates from – In this instance, since Dong Zhuo is an independent warlord, he is DARK-Attribute. Additionally, his tyrannical rule over the common people is also depicted in the first line of his card text – “While you control a Level 7 or higher “Ancient Warriors” monster, your opponent must pay 400 LP to activate a card or effect”. This is a reference to how he would oppress the people with taxes for his personal gain; however, in order to do so, he needed a puppet emperor in place, hence the requirement of “a Level 7 or higher “Ancient Warriors” monster”.

Because of Dong Zhuo’s tyrannical rule, there were many failed assassination attempts on him. One such attempt was made by Cao Cao, but unlike previous attempts, Cao Cao managed to escape with his life after the attempt. After this, he called upon the assistance of many other warlords in the land using a fake imperial order, uniting 18 warlords into a singular army to combat Dong Zhuo and overthrow him. Dong Zhuo lost the battles that followed and decided to flee after burning down Luoyang, after which the 18-warlord alliance disbanded due to a lack of proper leadership.

Cao Cao was from the Cao Wei kingdom, as referenced by the FIRE-Attribute on the top-right corner. Additionally, his first line of text makes him more powerful if you have another “Ancient Warrior” in play, referencing his leadership and heightened strength with allies by his side when he fought against Dong Zhuo with the 18 warlords, a contrast to Cao Cao’s assassination attempt on him, as he was alone at the time.

After fleeing from Luoyang, Dong Zhuo went to Chang’an with the remainder of his troops. However, Wang Yun, a minister of Chang’an at the time, was also plotting to assassinate Dong Zhuo. He took advantage of Dong Zhuo’s foul temper and used it as leverage for Lu Bu, Dong Zhuo’s adoptive son. Wang Yun convinced Lu Bu that Dong Zhuo did not truly care about his life, and that a blood relation did not exist between them since he was adopted. As such, Wang Yun convinced Lu Bu to betray Dong Zhuo and kill him.

The card “Ancient Warriors Saga – Deception and Betrayal” depicts Lu Bu’s defection from Dong Zhuo. This is actually represented in the effects of “Ancient Warriors – Rebellious Lu Feng” (the card representing Lu Bu”. The card, while powerful, has a downside to potentially give itself to the opponent if your opponent has a stronger card, representing Lu Bu’s tendency to betray his allies and how he was easily manipulated by Wang Yun.

This is just the beginning of the story of Romance of the Three Kingdoms; in fact, what was just covered is perhaps less than 10% of the complete novel. You can find a complete recollection of the story here, as well as its connections to its Yu-Gi-Oh! card counterparts and references here.

“The empire long divided, must unite; the empire long united, must divide. Thus it has ever been.”

Released in 2019, Creative Assembly and Sega’s 12th installment of the Total War franchise takes a new spin on a cornerstone of Chinese culture: the Three Kingdoms period and Luo Guanzhong’s historical epic The Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Originally written in the 14th century, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms dramatizes the fall of the Han Dynasty, the rise of powerful warlords, the founding of the Three Kingdoms, and the eventual reunification of China under the Jin Dynasty. As one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms has transcended the bounds of culture and history, with adaptations and reimaginations in the form of films, spin-off books, and more.

Total War: Three Kingdoms allows players to experience the romance like never before. With character-based campaigns, real-time tactical battles, and pivotal decision-making mechanics, those who play can rewrite the story of the Three Kingdoms in completely new ways.

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Origins: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Blending history, legend, and myth, the original novel recounts the chaotic Three Kingdoms period. Beginning during the fall of the Han Empire, the epic gives a dramatic, semi-fictionalized account of the roughly 100 years from 184 AD to 280 AD. We are introduced to iconic figures like Cao Cao, cunning strategist and leader of Wei; Liu Bei, the virtuous and benevolent leader of Shu; and Sun Quan, the pragmatic and cautious leader of Wu.

The epic recounts the early rise of Dong Zhou, his betrayal at the hands of Lu Bu, and the Rise of the Three Kingdoms following Lu Bu’s defeat. Throughout the novel, Luo Guanzhong explores ideas of righteousness, honor, and the pursuit of harmony amidst an era of chaos.

Importantly, Guanzhong’s writing was also heavily influenced by Confucian ideals of morality and the Mandate of Heaven. Liu Bei is often portrayed as the rightful heir to rule the land because he is favored by the heavens. Cao Cao, despite his reputation as a cunning strategist and control over the emperor, is often portrayed in a negative light due to a “lack of virtue.”

Throughout the chaos of frequent battles and shaky alliances, the novel emphasizes loyalty as the highest virtue, righteousness over personal gain, and that cleverness alone isn’t enough; it must serve morality to earn the Mandate of Heaven.

Ultimately, the Three Kingdoms came to be united under the Jin Dynasty that sprang from Cao Cao’s kingdom of Wei.

Despite its cultural precedence, modern audiences may find engaging with the novel difficult. Spanning over 800,000 words, the romance can be overwhelming due to its assumptions of Confucian knowledge, court politics, and dynastic customs.

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Total War: Three Kingdoms

Luckily, Total War: Three Kingdoms provides an interactive way for modern audiences to engage with the classic story of the Three Kingdoms. Blending turn-based strategy with real-time tactical battles, the game allows players to step into the shoes of the warlords of the story, featuring Cao Cao, Lu Bu, Liu Bei, and many more playable leaders.

Just as the warlords of the period vied to unite China under their rule, players work to expand their territory through diplomacy, conquest, and alliance, all while managing the economy, resources, and characters of their empire.

The game allows players to choose between two modes of play: Romance or Records. Based on the legendary and epic nature of Luo Guanzhong’s novel, the Romance mode portrays generals as superhumans with exaggerated abilities. The game takes the fantastical romance of the novel a step further, with characters engaging in epic duels, defeating entire armies, and acting as near-mythical figures.

On the other hand, the Records mode reflects the historical accounts of the Three Kingdoms period. This mode is both grounded and realistic, where generals act as regular units, and tactics and formations triumph over heroics and legendary feats.

Regardless of which path is chosen, the game immerses players in an interactive world rich with Chinese culture, with menu screens inspired by traditional brush painting, music evoking harmony and balance, and Confucian-inspired gameplay systems such as character traits and legitimacy. The game allows players to not just play as Chinese warlords, but lead according to Chinese cultural values.

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Reshaping the Romance

Although Total War: Three Kingdoms honors both The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and the history of the Three Kingdoms period, it is not simply another retelling of the same story, but rather, a chance for players to forge a new narrative.

Perhaps the most significant interpretive choice of the game is the reduction of the Confucian moral binary. This choice not only modernizes the story for a global audience but also invites players to expand upon the themes originally presented by Luo Guanzhong. Throughout their campaigns, players rethink what power, virtue, and legitimacy truly mean. The Confucian lens of the romance guided readers’ judgements, but in the game, characters are cast not in moral roles, but as leaders with agendas, strengths, and weaknesses.

Players have the opportunity to engage with moral ambiguity, deciding for themselves if power without virtue is truly hollow, if ambition is not simply corruption, but adaptation. Players will frequently be presented with choices of mercy or brutality, and violence or alliance. Through their choices in the game, players do not just read of betrayal, but commit it and come to justify it.

Rather than rewarding moral absolutism, the game invites ethical exploration, transforming a story of predestined virtue and villainy into an open-ended meditation on leadership, agency, and power.

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Three Kingdoms Across the Globe

Peaking at 191,816 concurrent players on Steam Chats, Total War: Three Kingdoms was a global success, bridging Eastern Historical narratives and Western audiences. The game has brought one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels to the screens of players as a global interactive experience. Players are not just exposed to Chinese culture, but immersed in it through the progression and mechanics of the game. Through interpretive choices and flexible gameplay, Total War: Three Kingdoms has been solidified as a fantastic reimagination of The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, that has and continues to serve as a global conduit of exploration for Chinese literature, history, and philosophy.

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Source Material

Total War Cover Image

Three Kingdoms Rulers Portrait

Battle of Red Cliffs

Total War Game Engine Image

Character Select

Mode Select

Cao Cao Traits

Origins

“The Legend of the White Snake” is one of China’s most beloved folk tales, with origins tracing back more than a thousand years. Over the centuries, it has been passed down through many different formats, including operas, literary adaptations, and movies, changing slightly with each retelling to suit the climate of the times. The story mostly revolves around the romance between Bai Suzhen, a mystical white snake that can take the form of a beautiful woman, and Xu Xian, an ordinary mortal man. Their love faces severe trials, mostly from the Buddhist monk Fa Hai, who considers the relationship between a supernatural being and a human unnatural and totally unacceptable. Universal themes such as love, morality, transformation, and societal expectations make the narrative deeply relatable to a wide range of audiences.

The original tale, especially in its earliest forms, strongly promoted rigid Buddhist values, emphasizing morality through clear distinctions between good and evil, natural and supernatural. In these traditional versions, Fa Hai is portrayed positively as a righteous guardian of morality. He fiercely condemned unorthodox relationships and female sexuality, which were perceived as threatening societal stability / religious purity. Bai Suzhen, despite her sincere love for Xu Xian, mostly served as a cautionary figure representing feminine seduction and transgression. This rigid moral stance reflected Buddhism’s strong influence during the period, reinforcing traditional gender norms and discouraging boundary-crossing relationships.

_{Painting from the Summer Palace in Beijing depicting the legend}

Modern Retelling

One particularly compelling global adaptation of this traditional narrative is the 2019 animated film “White Snake” produced by Light Chaser Animation Studios. The film follows Blanca, a white snake spirit that can take human form, as she embarks on a mission to stop a powerful Taoist general from achieving immortality at the cost of countless snake lives. During the failed mission, she loses her memory and is rescued by a kindhearted young man named Ah Xuan, who happens to be a snake-catcher. As Blanca searches for clues about her identity and the world around her, a romance arises between them. However, their love is soon tested by forces from both the human and supernatural realms. Unlike many traditional adaptations that focus on moral and ethical dilemmas, this film explores identity struggles, power dynamics, and self realization. Set as a prequel, the film gives much more depth to Bai Suzhen’s story by showcasing her life before her famous relationship with Xu Xian, providing new contexts and layers to the age-old tale.

_{Promotional image for White Snake movie}

Blanca’s amnesia following her failed mission serves as a powerful narrative device, emphasizing questions of personal identity, free will, and the exploration of one’s true self. Her memory loss resets her understanding of the world as well as herself. It removes any preconceived notions of allegiance, morality, and purpose that she may have accumulated. Through Blanca’s eyes, we see a gradual reconstruction of who she is. Her amnesia is a vehicle for transformation. By forgetting who she was, Blanca is able to become someone new, someone who questions authority, feels empathy for humans, and reconsiders her previous mission. This invites viewers to think about how identity is shaped not only by memory, but also by the choices we make everyday, choices which can be free of the road we have traveled thus far. It may make audiences reconsider the momentum of their own lives and decide to rethink what is truly important to them.

_{White Snake movie trailer}

The film empowers Blanca through a far more nuanced character development, aligning with modern perspectives on agency and female empowerment. Traditionally, Bai Suzhen was  portrayed as a passive figure whose destiny was controlled by the oppressive interventions of Fa Hai. However, “White Snake” portrays Blanca as a powerful and proactive character, someone who actively shapes her destiny through her choices. By confronting oppressive structures, Blanca’s character emphasizes personal autonomy and resistance against oppression, a huge deviation from her original portrayal as a two-dimension vixen that must be vanquished by religious and moral authority.

Another stark difference is the treatment of religious authority figures like Fa Hai. In the traditional version, Fa Hai represents a kind of unquestionable moral authority, backed by Buddhism and the social order it reinforces. In “White Snake,” however, this type of rigid authority is absent, replaced instead by more nuanced questions about who holds power and why. This reflects broader cultural changes, as where the old story emphasized obedience and conformity, the new version emphasizes choice, complexity, and resistance to dogma. It reflects a modern sensibility where people are much more questioning of power structures in society, both religious and governmental. 

Ultimately, the 2019 animated adaptation “White Snake” revitalizes “The Legend of the White Snake” by transforming it from cautionary folklore (and potentially Buddhist propaganda) into a profound exploration of identity, choice, and empowerment. By expanding traditional narrative boundaries and using visually captivating storytelling, the film introduces timeless Chinese folklore to global audiences. It shows how ancient stories can evolve to maintain relevance, delivering enduring messages that resonate deeply across different cultures and generations.

The Legend of the White Snake is a Chinese folktale that has adapted over the centuries from oral storytelling to peking opera to animation. At it’s core the legend retells a story of love between Bai Suzhen(the white snake), a powerful snake spirit, and Xu Xian, a kind-hearted scholar. However a monk named Fahai sees Bai Suzhen as an evil spirit and gets in between them showing Xu Xian her true form which drives the conflict in the story. While the story has changed its meaning many times through the centuries, in more recent times it is a tragic love story that has themes of compassion, devotion and love.

In the older versions of the legend this conflict between Bai Suzhen and Fahai leads to a fight where Bai Suzhen fights for Xu Xian and their love while Fahai is against this due to his spirituality and his mindset that humans and spirits cannot mingle with each other. This leads to the tragedy that is brought up earlier as Bai Suzhen cannot overcome Fahai’s spirituality and is imprisoned under the Leifeng Pagoda forever. This story in older times was retold this way to teach against the breaking of social norms which disrupts Confucius harmony. Confucianism was very important and therefore the story adapted this way.

However, in more recent times the story adapts to show Bai Suzhen’s triumph against Fahai. As Confucian values were slowly fading out, many more modern ideas of love and devotion allowed the story to undergo change again which is seen in many modern adaptations and especially in the animation industry in one notable global retelling, Hakujaden or the White Snake Enchantress.

Hakujaden(1958): Animating for the First Time

Hakujaden(1958), was one of the first full-length colors anime films retelling this legend. It was produced by Toei Animation and tells the story of Bai-Niang and Xu Xian. The story, while keeping the original message the same, is met with many new changes. Xu Xian is a kind-hearted boy who befriends a mysterious White Snake. Eventually, once older the white snake has turned into this beautiful women named Bai-Niang, a version of Bai Suzhen. A similar conflict arises as Fahai sees Bai-Niang as a threat to natural order and attempts to separate the couple. However, in the end Bai-Niang gives up her powers to remain in human form to prove her love for Xu Xian transforming the story into a fairytale ending.

Emphasis on Romance

While many versions of the White Snake legend delve into supernatural and moral dilemma’s, Hakujaden narrows its focus on the romance between Bai-Niang(Bai Suzhen) and Xu Xian. They both become the central pillar of the film, with the animation devoting a substantial amount of time to their blossoming love for each other. Their longing and love for each other drives the plot, creating a warm, hopeful atmosphere that contrasts with older tellings’ heavier themes.

By adding this blossoming love at the start of the film, even as Fahai attempts to separate Xu Xian and Bai-Niang, the film is able to keep it’s fairy-tale charm. Instead of exploring the weight of cosmic law or morality, the film highlights compassion, devotion, and the obstacles keeping the couple apart. In the end Bai-Niang gives up her powers to revive Xu Xian. Fahai seeing this stops his fight against Bai-Niang as the two lovers are reunited and everyone including Fahai bids them farewell. By emphasizing gentle affection and simplicity, Hakujaden reshapes the legend into a story of love’s triumph, making it feel more like a fairy tale than a spiritual legend. This approach is aligned well with a broader trend of many stories of the time which often highlights the triumph of love no matter the cause.

Side Characters and Comic Relief

One of the most notable shifts from older versions of the legend is the introduction of lighthearted side characters in Hakujaden. Among them are cute pandas and other animals who inject humorous interludes throughout the story, softening moments of conflict or tension. In older Chinese versions, however, this “supporting role” often fell to Xiao Qing, the Green Snake. Xiao Qing was another snake spirit who served as Bai Suzhen’s loyal confidant. She is another example of evolution of the story as her role ranges widely from loyal confidante to sometimes even a rebellious figure. However, in Hakujaden, Xiao Qing is relegated to a less important role but she still is a close friend of Bai-Niang. In older telling’s, rather than providing simple comic relief, Xiao Qing frequently employed her wit and magic to protect Bai Suzhen, emphasizing the shared bond and determination between the two spirits. Hakujaden, by contrast, opts for playful animal companions to heighten the film’s family-friendly appeal. This comedic pivot ensures that heavier themes do not overwhelm the viewer, preserving the adaptation’s warm, fairy-tale tone.

Artistic Style, Animation Techniques, and Global Retelling

A defining feature of Hakujaden is its pioneering role in Japanese animation, highlighting the remarkable creative decisions made by Toei Animation. Released in 1958, it was one of the first full-length color anime films, which was a significant achievement when animators still had to hand-paint every frame. This intensive production process yielded a vibrant, painted look that stands apart from the more traditional retellings of the White Snake legend—such as Peking Opera, which usually has bold costumes and striking makeup.

Hakujaden on the other hand uses softer colors and pastel tones, which give the film an almost dreamlike setting. The gentle color scheme captures the serene West Lake setting. This builds on the fairytale tone allowing the animation to reinterpret the story as a romantic love story where love beats all rather than a more dreary tragic love story that it used to be interpreted as. Instead of the dramatic theater someone might expect from opera, the film employs soft painted animation to focus to the power of love rather than heavier spiritual themes. Through this visually appealing style, Hakujaden not only reintroduces an old Chinese story to a newer, younger audience but also reinterprets it with a more modern lens. The result bridges cultural contexts, presenting the legend as a hopeful romantic tale that emphasizes the themes of love, devotion, and transformation.

Full version of Hakujaden:

Journey to the West: The Original Work

game cover

Black Myth: Wukong is adapted from Journey to the West, one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels. Sun Wukong is the most popular character in the original story. In the novel, Sun Wukong is born from a divine stone on Huaguo Mountain and, from the moment of his birth, demonstrates a spirit and courage unlike ordinary monkeys. He learns the 72 Transformations and the Somersault Cloud under Bodhi Patriarch. After returning from his training, dissatisfied with the position assigned to him by the Heavenly Court and driven by his own arrogance, he rebels against Heaven, only to be subdued by the Buddha and imprisoned under the Five Elements Mountain. Five hundred years later, Tang Sanzang rescues him, places a tightening headband on him, and together they set out to retrieve the Buddhist scriptures from the West. Throughout their journey, they vanquish demons and monsters. Once the pilgrimage is completed, Sun Wukong attains Buddhahood and undergoes a transformation from a stubborn rebel to an enlightened figure. He is beloved not only because he wields enormous magical power but also because, during the journey, his personality shifts from arrogant and capricious to responsible and mature—ultimately completing his own redemption. This theme of self-redemption is very well-received in China; there is even an idiom, “A prodigal son’s return is priceless,” which means that if someone strays from the right path but later awakens and repents, he can still be considered a good person.

Achievements and Influence of Black Myth: Wukong

Black Myth: Wukong, as a game adapted from Journey to the West, has achieved enormous commercial success. As of January 11, 2025, Black Myth: Wukong has sold 28 million copies—an achievement no Chinese single-player game had ever reached before. It also broke the nearly decade-long drought of AAA games in China. (A AAA game is a high-budget, high-investment single-player title developed by a top-tier team using advanced technology.) After Black Myth: Wukong’s success, many other single-player games—such as Shadow Blade Zero, Lost Song, and Ming Dynasty Abyss: The Feathers—sprang up like mushrooms after the rain. Thus, Black Myth: Wukong is not merely a commercial success; it has also validated a successful path for the Chinese AAA game industry. The question remains: is its success mainly due to the enthusiastic support of domestic Chinese fans, or is it the result of its excellent game content?

game promotional image

Origins

Before the emergence of Black Myth: Wukong, the AAA category was largely dominated by Western and Japanese game companies. This was not because Chinese game companies lacked technology or funding—note that both Tencent, the highest-grossing game company in the world, and NetEase, the fifth highest-grossing, are from China. However, they were reluctant to enter the AAA space. On one hand, single-purchase AAA games have a lower profit margin than online games that thrive on continuous consumer spending; on the other hand, no Chinese company had found success in this genre for almost a decade. Thus, despite having the world’s most profitable gaming companies and the largest market, China’s AAA sector was practically empty. Among Chinese gamers, a phrase circulated: “China has no AAA.” This reflected both the awkward state of the Chinese AAA game industry and players’ hopes for a homegrown AAA title.

On August 20, 2020, a small and previously unknown studio called Game Science released the first gameplay demo of Black Myth: Wukong. Though no one had heard of the company at that time, the familiar figure of Sun Wukong—alongside advanced graphics and dazzling combat sequences—instantly caused a sensation on the internet. The video rapidly exceeded ten million views on Chinese streaming sites, and by 2024, that figure had grown to 58 million.

The Game’s Release – Meeting Expectations

Although the trailer proved highly effective for publicity, many game review companies and independent media content creators suspected that the footage might be exaggerated or even falsified. All doubts, however, disappeared upon the game’s release. Black Myth: Wukong surpassed even the trailer’s visuals and offered a large number of boss fights, winning over players.

Cultural Promotion

Black Myth: Wukong not only excels in gameplay but also makes a remarkable contribution to promoting traditional Chinese culture. Every monster in the game—be it a minor, unnamed demon—has its own background story. These stories are written in ancient Chinese (wenyanwen), preserving a significant amount of ancient linguistic art. This is challenging even for many Chinese players to fully understand, yet the mystery has driven many Western players to explore the original Journey to the West and attempt to interpret its meaning.

example of background story with wenyanwen

Additionally, the game is packed with elements of Chinese painting, classical gardens, and Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Many scenes are recreation of ancient architectures : developers used specialized equipment to replicate the real-life architecture into the game.

comparison between game scene and reallife architecture

At the end of each chapter, players receive an animated short film and an interactive mural scroll.
Such applications of historical and Chinese cultural elements in the game have sparked a keen interest in Eastern culture among numerous Western players, many of whom have begun learning about Journey to the West and Buddhist culture on their own.

animated film from chapter one

Adapted Story

Unlike the original Journey to the West, Black Myth: Wukong tells a story set after Sun Wukong has already become a Buddha. Having been conferred Buddhahood, he longs for a free life, voluntarily relinquishes his status, and returns to a reclusive existence. However, the Heavenly gods do not permit this, and they massacre his brethren on Huaguo Mountain. Enraged, Sun Wukong wages war against Heaven and is ultimately killed. His body is torn into six artifacts. The protagonist of Black Myth: Wukong is a nameless little monkey from Huaguo Mountain whose mission is to gather these artifacts and resurrect him. In the finale, Sun Wukong is revived, casts off the tightening headband, and at last gains his freedom.

Whereas in the original story he repents and joins the ostensibly righteous Buddhist order, this version focuses more on Sun Wukong’s own will and pursuit of freedom, which aligns more with modern notions emphasizing free will. The game also incorporates various modern elements. For example, the design of the white bone spirit’s fourth sister caters to contemporary gamer aesthetics, and the game portrays Pigsy (Zhu Bajie) as being in a relationship with the Spider, devoting significant narrative space to their love story, which players find moving. Although some traditionalists criticize these changes as distorting the original content and central themes, it cannot be denied that the game respects history in many ways—such as faithfully recreating the ancient architecture and retaining the ancient Chinese language—and its modern touch has led to major success, making this story known to tens of millions of gamers worldwide.

animated film from chapter four about Bajie’s love story

The Impact of Black Myth: Wukong

From a commercial perspective, Black Myth: Wukong earned profits several times over its development costs. Culturally, it aroused the curiosity of tens of millions of players around the world about traditional Chinese fantasy novels. For the industry, it became an enlightening example for the next decade of Chinese AAA game development. Though controversial, Black Myth: Wukong still stands as a romantic “love letter” from Game Science (its developers) to Chinese gamers.