The Legend of the White Snake is a Chinese folktale that has adapted over the centuries from oral storytelling to peking opera to animation. At it’s core the legend retells a story of love between Bai Suzhen(the white snake), a powerful snake spirit, and Xu Xian, a kind-hearted scholar. However a monk named Fahai sees Bai Suzhen as an evil spirit and gets in between them showing Xu Xian her true form which drives the conflict in the story. While the story has changed its meaning many times through the centuries, in more recent times it is a tragic love story that has themes of compassion, devotion and love.
In the older versions of the legend this conflict between Bai Suzhen and Fahai leads to a fight where Bai Suzhen fights for Xu Xian and their love while Fahai is against this due to his spirituality and his mindset that humans and spirits cannot mingle with each other. This leads to the tragedy that is brought up earlier as Bai Suzhen cannot overcome Fahai’s spirituality and is imprisoned under the Leifeng Pagoda forever. This story in older times was retold this way to teach against the breaking of social norms which disrupts Confucius harmony. Confucianism was very important and therefore the story adapted this way.
However, in more recent times the story adapts to show Bai Suzhen’s triumph against Fahai. As Confucian values were slowly fading out, many more modern ideas of love and devotion allowed the story to undergo change again which is seen in many modern adaptations and especially in the animation industry in one notable global retelling, Hakujaden or the White Snake Enchantress.
Hakujaden(1958), was one of the first full-length colors anime films retelling this legend. It was produced by Toei Animation and tells the story of Bai-Niang and Xu Xian. The story, while keeping the original message the same, is met with many new changes. Xu Xian is a kind-hearted boy who befriends a mysterious White Snake. Eventually, once older the white snake has turned into this beautiful women named Bai-Niang, a version of Bai Suzhen. A similar conflict arises as Fahai sees Bai-Niang as a threat to natural order and attempts to separate the couple. However, in the end Bai-Niang gives up her powers to remain in human form to prove her love for Xu Xian transforming the story into a fairytale ending.
Emphasis on Romance
While many versions of the White Snake legend delve into supernatural and moral dilemma’s, Hakujaden narrows its focus on the romance between Bai-Niang(Bai Suzhen) and Xu Xian. They both become the central pillar of the film, with the animation devoting a substantial amount of time to their blossoming love for each other. Their longing and love for each other drives the plot, creating a warm, hopeful atmosphere that contrasts with older tellings’ heavier themes.
By adding this blossoming love at the start of the film, even as Fahai attempts to separate Xu Xian and Bai-Niang, the film is able to keep it’s fairy-tale charm. Instead of exploring the weight of cosmic law or morality, the film highlights compassion, devotion, and the obstacles keeping the couple apart. In the end Bai-Niang gives up her powers to revive Xu Xian. Fahai seeing this stops his fight against Bai-Niang as the two lovers are reunited and everyone including Fahai bids them farewell. By emphasizing gentle affection and simplicity, Hakujaden reshapes the legend into a story of love’s triumph, making it feel more like a fairy tale than a spiritual legend. This approach is aligned well with a broader trend of many stories of the time which often highlights the triumph of love no matter the cause.
Side Characters and Comic Relief
One of the most notable shifts from older versions of the legend is the introduction of lighthearted side characters in Hakujaden. Among them are cute pandas and other animals who inject humorous interludes throughout the story, softening moments of conflict or tension. In older Chinese versions, however, this “supporting role” often fell to Xiao Qing, the Green Snake. Xiao Qing was another snake spirit who served as Bai Suzhen’s loyal confidant. She is another example of evolution of the story as her role ranges widely from loyal confidante to sometimes even a rebellious figure. However, in Hakujaden, Xiao Qing is relegated to a less important role but she still is a close friend of Bai-Niang. In older telling’s, rather than providing simple comic relief, Xiao Qing frequently employed her wit and magic to protect Bai Suzhen, emphasizing the shared bond and determination between the two spirits. Hakujaden, by contrast, opts for playful animal companions to heighten the film’s family-friendly appeal. This comedic pivot ensures that heavier themes do not overwhelm the viewer, preserving the adaptation’s warm, fairy-tale tone.
Artistic Style, Animation Techniques, and Global Retelling
A defining feature of Hakujaden is its pioneering role in Japanese animation, highlighting the remarkable creative decisions made by Toei Animation. Released in 1958, it was one of the first full-length color anime films, which was a significant achievement when animators still had to hand-paint every frame. This intensive production process yielded a vibrant, painted look that stands apart from the more traditional retellings of the White Snake legend—such as Peking Opera, which usually has bold costumes and striking makeup.
Hakujaden on the other hand uses softer colors and pastel tones, which give the film an almost dreamlike setting. The gentle color scheme captures the serene West Lake setting. This builds on the fairytale tone allowing the animation to reinterpret the story as a romantic love story where love beats all rather than a more dreary tragic love story that it used to be interpreted as. Instead of the dramatic theater someone might expect from opera, the film employs soft painted animation to focus to the power of love rather than heavier spiritual themes. Through this visually appealing style, Hakujaden not only reintroduces an old Chinese story to a newer, younger audience but also reinterprets it with a more modern lens. The result bridges cultural contexts, presenting the legend as a hopeful romantic tale that emphasizes the themes of love, devotion, and transformation.
Black Myth: Wukong is adapted from Journey to the West, one of China’s Four Great Classical Novels. Sun Wukong is the most popular character in the original story. In the novel, Sun Wukong is born from a divine stone on Huaguo Mountain and, from the moment of his birth, demonstrates a spirit and courage unlike ordinary monkeys. He learns the 72 Transformations and the Somersault Cloud under Bodhi Patriarch. After returning from his training, dissatisfied with the position assigned to him by the Heavenly Court and driven by his own arrogance, he rebels against Heaven, only to be subdued by the Buddha and imprisoned under the Five Elements Mountain. Five hundred years later, Tang Sanzang rescues him, places a tightening headband on him, and together they set out to retrieve the Buddhist scriptures from the West. Throughout their journey, they vanquish demons and monsters. Once the pilgrimage is completed, Sun Wukong attains Buddhahood and undergoes a transformation from a stubborn rebel to an enlightened figure. He is beloved not only because he wields enormous magical power but also because, during the journey, his personality shifts from arrogant and capricious to responsible and mature—ultimately completing his own redemption. This theme of self-redemption is very well-received in China; there is even an idiom, “A prodigal son’s return is priceless,” which means that if someone strays from the right path but later awakens and repents, he can still be considered a good person.
Achievements and Influence of Black Myth: Wukong
Black Myth: Wukong, as a game adapted from Journey to the West, has achieved enormous commercial success. As of January 11, 2025, Black Myth: Wukong has sold 28 million copies—an achievement no Chinese single-player game had ever reached before. It also broke the nearly decade-long drought of AAA games in China. (A AAA game is a high-budget, high-investment single-player title developed by a top-tier team using advanced technology.) After Black Myth: Wukong’s success, many other single-player games—such as Shadow Blade Zero, Lost Song, and Ming Dynasty Abyss: The Feathers—sprang up like mushrooms after the rain. Thus, Black Myth: Wukong is not merely a commercial success; it has also validated a successful path for the Chinese AAA game industry. The question remains: is its success mainly due to the enthusiastic support of domestic Chinese fans, or is it the result of its excellent game content?
game promotional image
Origins
Before the emergence of Black Myth: Wukong, the AAA category was largely dominated by Western and Japanese game companies. This was not because Chinese game companies lacked technology or funding—note that both Tencent, the highest-grossing game company in the world, and NetEase, the fifth highest-grossing, are from China. However, they were reluctant to enter the AAA space. On one hand, single-purchase AAA games have a lower profit margin than online games that thrive on continuous consumer spending; on the other hand, no Chinese company had found success in this genre for almost a decade. Thus, despite having the world’s most profitable gaming companies and the largest market, China’s AAA sector was practically empty. Among Chinese gamers, a phrase circulated: “China has no AAA.” This reflected both the awkward state of the Chinese AAA game industry and players’ hopes for a homegrown AAA title.
On August 20, 2020, a small and previously unknown studio called Game Science released the first gameplay demo of Black Myth: Wukong. Though no one had heard of the company at that time, the familiar figure of Sun Wukong—alongside advanced graphics and dazzling combat sequences—instantly caused a sensation on the internet. The video rapidly exceeded ten million views on Chinese streaming sites, and by 2024, that figure had grown to 58 million.
first game play demo of Black Myth : Wukong
The Game’s Release – Meeting Expectations
Although the trailer proved highly effective for publicity, many game review companies and independent media content creators suspected that the footage might be exaggerated or even falsified. All doubts, however, disappeared upon the game’s release. Black Myth: Wukong surpassed even the trailer’s visuals and offered a large number of boss fights, winning over players.
Cultural Promotion
Black Myth: Wukong not only excels in gameplay but also makes a remarkable contribution to promoting traditional Chinese culture. Every monster in the game—be it a minor, unnamed demon—has its own background story. These stories are written in ancient Chinese (wenyanwen), preserving a significant amount of ancient linguistic art. This is challenging even for many Chinese players to fully understand, yet the mystery has driven many Western players to explore the original Journey to the West and attempt to interpret its meaning.
example of background story with wenyanwen
Additionally, the game is packed with elements of Chinese painting, classical gardens, and Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Many scenes are recreation of ancient architectures : developers used specialized equipment to replicate the real-life architecture into the game.
comparison between game scene and reallife architecture
At the end of each chapter, players receive an animated short film and an interactive mural scroll. Such applications of historical and Chinese cultural elements in the game have sparked a keen interest in Eastern culture among numerous Western players, many of whom have begun learning about Journey to the West and Buddhist culture on their own.
animated film from chapter one
Adapted Story
Unlike the original Journey to the West, Black Myth: Wukong tells a story set after Sun Wukong has already become a Buddha. Having been conferred Buddhahood, he longs for a free life, voluntarily relinquishes his status, and returns to a reclusive existence. However, the Heavenly gods do not permit this, and they massacre his brethren on Huaguo Mountain. Enraged, Sun Wukong wages war against Heaven and is ultimately killed. His body is torn into six artifacts. The protagonist of Black Myth: Wukong is a nameless little monkey from Huaguo Mountain whose mission is to gather these artifacts and resurrect him. In the finale, Sun Wukong is revived, casts off the tightening headband, and at last gains his freedom.
Whereas in the original story he repents and joins the ostensibly righteous Buddhist order, this version focuses more on Sun Wukong’s own will and pursuit of freedom, which aligns more with modern notions emphasizing free will. The game also incorporates various modern elements. For example, the design of the white bone spirit’s fourth sister caters to contemporary gamer aesthetics, and the game portrays Pigsy (Zhu Bajie) as being in a relationship with the Spider, devoting significant narrative space to their love story, which players find moving. Although some traditionalists criticize these changes as distorting the original content and central themes, it cannot be denied that the game respects history in many ways—such as faithfully recreating the ancient architecture and retaining the ancient Chinese language—and its modern touch has led to major success, making this story known to tens of millions of gamers worldwide.
animated film from chapter four about Bajie’s love story
The Impact of Black Myth: Wukong
From a commercial perspective, Black Myth: Wukong earned profits several times over its development costs. Culturally, it aroused the curiosity of tens of millions of players around the world about traditional Chinese fantasy novels. For the industry, it became an enlightening example for the next decade of Chinese AAA game development. Though controversial, Black Myth: Wukong still stands as a romantic “love letter” from Game Science (its developers) to Chinese gamers.
At first glance, this seems just to be a quirky blend of English and Chinese—and that is exactly what it is!
Meaning “City不city” (pronounced city bù city) literally translates to “Is it city or not? Here, the word ‘city’ does not directly mean a large town, but is a stand-in word for stylish, urban, or of a modern aesthetic.
For example, one might ask, “这个城市city不city?” (Zhège chéngshì city bù city?), translating to “Is this city city or not?” to determine if a place feels cosmopolitan. Similarly, commenting on an outfit, “这样穿搭city不city?” (Zhèyàng chuān dā city bù city?), means “Is this outfit city or not?”
The term reflects a desire among Chinese youth to identify and associate with contemporary, stylish experiences.
Origin A British blogger named “Baobao Xiong” (Paul Mike Ashton) took his sister to visit the Great Wall of China and recorded a video, where the following conversation took place:
“Sister, is the Great Wall beautiful?”
“Yes, it is.”
“City or city?”
“City, I guess.”
While at its core, this was just a random comment, the moment stuck with Chinese citizens. The quirky mix of English and Mandarin had a nice poetic rhythm that made it memorable and fun to say. The tinge of playful Western pop-culture sound mixed with the cross-cultural identity made it an instant hit and ripe for reinterpretation.
Rise in Pop-Culture Initially, the phrase started spreading in late 2023 on Xiaohongshu (小红书), being used ironically to mock over-the-top attempts to appear urban and trendy, often referencing influencers from “lower-tier cities” trying to mimic Shanghai-style luxury aesthetics.
This originally snarky judgment of others soon evolved into a self-aware, humorous tool. Now, many young people use it as a lighthearted tool to poke fun at life around them.
The phrase gained so much popularity that Ashton began being interviewed by the media and posting about the phrase on his TikTok account. In one interview, he comments that:
“‘city uncity’ is actually a philosophical question, and its meaning cannot be expressed in words. A city is something that gives people a lot of stimulation and excitement, and has a beauty that will never be forgotten. That’s what a city is to me.” – Paul Mike Ashton
How To Use Examples Lifestyle/Behavior Chinese: 在星巴克里拍照打卡，这种行为到底city不city？ English: Taking photos in Starbucks — is that even city anymore?
Chinese: 每天健身+喝美式+逛宜家，现在不这样都不city了？ English: If you’re not working out, drinking Americanos, and shopping at IKEA daily, are you even city?
Places Chinese: 重庆夜景太炸了，简直city到不行！ English: The Chongqing night view is insane — totally city vibes!
Chinese: 这家餐厅装潢挺精致的，就是位置在五环外，不太city。 English: This restaurant’s decor is classy, but it’s outside the Fifth Ring Road… not very city.
Ironic/Self-deprecating Use Chinese: 我今天穿了个地摊T恤配洞洞鞋，不city但很舒服。 English: Today I wore a street-market tee with Crocs — not city, but very comfy.
Chinese: 坐高铁吃泡面，瞬间city感消失😂 English: Eating instant noodles on the bullet train — instant loss of city energy
Used as Commentary (Online Comments) Comment on influencer’s photo: city感拉满！ Translation: City vibes maxed out!
Comment on someone doing a rural vlog: 不city但好真实，我喜欢。 Translation: Not city, but so real. I like it.
Cultural Significance At the core of the trend, we can see the core value of sophistication. This is not necessarily about pure wealth, but reflects the widespread desire in China to be part of higher-class city environments that are lifted up.
This slightly hints at some of the underlying class tension in China, specifically playing off the urban-rural divide. In one way, one might use the phrase to try to seem sophisticated while commenting on something that is seen as stylish. In another way, one might say it to mock those who care so much about the arbitrary standards of style we see in the modern day. In this way, city不city both highlights and resists urban aesthetic.
We can also see how city不city represents the growing globalization of Chinese youth with the mix of English and Mandarin. This highlights a China that is increasingly more welcome to Western influence, serving as an indicator of the change.
This all culminates in a generation of Chinese youth that is defining itself in a way that is fundamentally different from generations past. Ultimately, the trend sits at an intersection of two ideas: globalization and class tension. The technological transformation has exposed them to more ideas than their predecessors, leading to a new awareness of complex social issues and class divides.
While at first glance, city不city does not seem like a deeply philosophical trend, the more you look, you can actually see it represent a much greater theme. Whether he intended to or not, Ashton may have been right when he said, “city uncity is actually a philosophical question.” It subtly challenges how we define modernity, identity, and belonging in a rapidly changing China.
Conclusion City不city started off as just a playful random remark from a travel blog, but has since been catapulted into a widespread cultural catchphrase that speaks to the creativity of modern language internet. Blending English and Mandarin, humor and social commentary, it captures how younger generations in China are navigating identity, taste, and the influence of global trends. Whether used to describe a fun event spot or to rag on a recent test, like many other pop-culture phenomena, the true power of the word lies in its flexibility and ability to transform over time.
Conclusion City不city started off as just a playful random remark from a travel blog, but has since been catapulted into a widespread cultural catchphrase that speaks to the creativity of modern language internet. Blending English and Mandarin, humor and social commentary, it captures how younger generations in China are navigating identity, taste, and the influence of global trends. Whether used to describe a fun event spot or to rag on a recent test, like many other pop-culture phenomena, the true power of the word lies in its flexibility and ability to transform over time.
班味 directly translates to “work smell” or “office stench”. It’s a metaphor used to describe the sense of exhaustion, monotony, and mental and emotional fatigue that comes with an office job. The longer you work, the more potent the smell, and it haunts you outside of work. It originated from a viral post on Weibo that read, “只要上过一天班你就脏了， ‘班味儿’ 这辈子都洗不掉” or:
“Once you have worked a day, you are already dirty. You can never wash off that ‘smell of work’ in this lifetime”.
Interpretations and Usage
At first, it was a very literal term, with people associating certain smells with the workplace atmosphere, such as bitter black coffee, sweat, cigarette smoke, and office air. Now, its interpretation has been extended to include a variety of aspects of office life: the visible exhaustion on a person’s face, repetitive and boring tasks, the stress of workplace hierarchies, etc. The term is reflective of the frustrations the younger generations have with modern office life and their struggles to adapt to it, wanting to find ways to “wash off” the work smell. It’s not that it is a new phenomenon, but newer generations, with a greater sense of individuality and freedom, are the ones willing to critique it and seek to strengthen the barrier between work and personal time.
Online, it has been turned into a variety of memes. It’s something office workers can relate to and even laugh at because of its accuracy, complaining about commuting, long work hours, difficult colleagues, etc. However, it is more than that because bringing light to the negative aspects of corporate work is inherently a cultural critique of it. It’s giving a voice to the common worker low on the corporate ladder. Making light of it helps connect these people together, making them feel understood and, in a way, giving them back some of the agency they had lost. It also goes against traditional cultural norms that prioritize the satisfaction of hard work and sacrifice over mental health. For example, the idiom “吃苦”, literally “eating bitterness”, means to suffer without complaint. Its American equivalent would be “no pain, no gain”. With this ideology, “work smell” is not something to fix; it is something to embrace; it’s proof of your dedication. Wanting a balance between work and personal life and bringing things like burnout and mental health into the conversation is progressive.
Other internet keywords and trends have risen alongside 班味. One example is “gross work outfits” or 上班恶心穿搭. The term originated from a post on Douyin, where a user told the story of how her boss scolded her for her “gross” outfits that she had worn because of cold weather. That post went viral, and other people began sharing the “gross” attire they wore to work. It almost became a competition to create the worst outfit. It reflects another criticism of office culture by looking at formal dress codes. Some even justify it by arguing that they want to wear more casual clothes to work so their favorite clothes do not get the “work smell” on them.
Socioeconomic Issues and Reform
The rising dissatisfaction with the workplace is tied to the economic hardships rampant in contemporary China. The rapid urbanization and economic development since the 80s have culminated into a high youth unemployment rate as opportunities are limited and the number of college graduates continues to rise. Underemployment is now a problem; many might be in monotonous office jobs that don’t even fully take advantage of their skillsets. The stress of navigating an increasingly competitive job market and landing a stable job adds to the sense of exhaustion. Jobs are less fulfilling and more a means of living. As these problems persist, ideologies like 躺平, “lying flat”, have arisen among the youth. It’s a little more extreme than just bringing awareness to and pushing against corporate culture, it’s flat out rejecting it. Those participating in “lying flat” minimize their professional commitments and prioritize their mental health. It has an American derivative called “quiet quitting”, which is doing the bare minimum required at work.
While 班味 is a Chinese internet keyword, it’s clear that it’s reflective of a broader global societal trend. Historically speaking, caring about mental health is a very recent thing, and older generations alive today are even resistant to it. It took until 2019 for the World Health Organization (WHO) to recognize burnout as an occupational phenomenon. There have been some initiatives to improve the well-being of employees, like the implementation of four-day workweeks, which has become more popular as of late. However, the traditional “996” (9 a.m. to 9 p.m., 6 days a week) work schedule remains prevalent in China. There is only the hope that as younger generations become aware and point out these societal problems, they will be the ones to implement changes to fix them. The internet has played a crucial role regarding awareness, making people aware that they are not alone and that there is a larger issue at hand. In this sense, 班味 calls for a future with work balanced with individuality, well-being, and freedom, where you can wash off the work smell at the end of the day.
The story of Mulan had origins far past the most recent mainstream retelling from Disney’s Mulan (2020). Although there is debate whether the story of Mulan is a true story, recent historians suggest she was not. The story of Mulan started with a poem dating far back between the 4th and 6th centuries.
The poem, found below, was also referenced as a song. This early version of the story, “The Ballad of Mulan,” had origins in Yuefe Shiji, known as the “Music Bureau Poetry Collection.”
Tsiek tsiek and again tsiek tsiek, Mulan weaves, facing the door. You don’t hear the shuttle’s sound, You only hear Daughter’s sighs. They ask Daughter who’s in her heart, They ask Daughter who’s on her mind. “No one is on Daughter’s heart, No one is on Daughter’s mind. Last night I saw the draft posters, The Khan is calling many troops, The army list is in twelve scrolls, On every scroll there’s Father’s name. Father has no grown‑up son, Mulan has no elder brother. I want to buy a saddle and horse, And serve in the army in Father’s place.” In the East Market she buys a spirited horse, In the West Market she buys a saddle, In the South Market she buys a bridle, In the North Market she buys a long whip. At dawn she takes leave of Father and Mother, In the evening camps on the Yellow River’s bank. She doesn’t hear the sound of Father and Mother calling, She only hears the Yellow River’s flowing water cry tsien tsien. At dawn she takes leave of the Yellow River, In the evening she arrives at Black Mountain. She doesn’t hear the sound of Father and Mother calling, She only hears Mount Yen’s nomad horses cry tsiu tsiu. She goes ten thousand miles on the business of war, She crosses passes and mountains like flying. Northern gusts carry the rattle of army pots, Chilly light shines on iron armor. Generals die in a hundred battles, Stout soldiers return after ten years. On her return she sees the Son of Heaven, The Son of Heaven sits in the Splendid Hall. He gives out promotions in twelve ranks And prizes of a hundred thousand and more. The Khan asks her what she desires. “Mulan has no use for a minister’s post. I wish to ride a swift mount To take me back to my home.” When Father and Mother hear Daughter is coming They go outside the wall to meet her, leaning on each other. When Elder Sister hears Younger Sister is coming She fixes her rouge, facing the door. When Little Brother hears Elder Sister is coming He whets the knife, quick quick, for pig and sheep. “I open the door to my east chamber, I sit on my couch in the west room, I take off my wartime gown And put on my old‑time clothes.” Facing the window she fixes her cloudlike hair, Hanging up a mirror she dabs on yellow flower powder She goes out the door and sees her comrades. Her comrades are all amazed and perplexed. Traveling together for twelve years They didn’t know Mulan was a girl. “The he‑hare’s feet go hop and skip, The she‑hare’s eyes are muddled and fuddled. Two hares running side by side close to the ground, How can they tell if I am he or she?”
Guo Maoqian created this compilation of poetry somewhere between 960 and 1279 CE. The poem found above originated well before this time, but the lack of physical writing made this version the oldest surviving copy.
The Origins
As seen in the poem, the original story follows Mulan as she volunteers for her father, who is called into battle. The emperor in the story is referred to as “Khan” (also could be called Kehan or Kaghan). Many scholars assert that this early story had roots in the Northern Wei dynasty and that Mulan must have been from the nomadic society called the Tuoba.
The Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty. This original poem of Mulan could have referred to this emperor in the call for war.
The Tuoba clan were a group of Xianbei people who travelled from northern China, and historians argue women held respect in the society as the story was named after the heroine. This Northern Wei dynasty was sandwiched between the turbulent Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) fall and the rise of the Sui dynasty (589-618 CE). The Northern Wei dynasty had Turkish influence, which caused significant changes in the previous Han Chinese people. The Northern Wei dynasty led to the synthesis of two unique cultures that produced new music and poetry. Much of this new art portrayed the independence and strength of the northern women. One interesting note is that although Mulan translates to “Mongolia” in Chinese, recent evidence points to the Turkish influence on language, pointing to “Mulan” being a masculine name at the time. This lent to Mulan’s ability, in the poem, to hide her gender, as evidenced by the final lines.
“The he‑hare’s feet go hop and skip, The she‑hare’s eyes are muddled and fuddled. Two hares running side by side close to the ground, How can they tell if I am he or she?”
The Poem’s Simplicity
Mulan is seen sighing, and while the rest of her family assumes the sighs stem from a romantic partner, she explains that she heard about the call from the emperor. She notes her family’s lack of a son to fight, so she describes her desire to buy a horse and fight in place of her father. She follows through with the preparations for the war and garners success in being in the army. Despite being considered for a promotion, Mulan declines and decides to journey back home, where she is met by her family. She finally discloses her true identity, leaving her comrades shocked but amazed.
The poem’s main themes include subtle gender roles but focus mainly on filial piety. At the beginning of the poem, her family assumes she is thinking of romantic interests. Several lines of the poem describe her reasons for fighting in the war. She wants to protect her father and keep him from the war. She thinks less of herself and more of her family. At her core, her family is the reason to fight rather than nationalistic beliefs or wanting honor.
Future Works
There is no shortage of new adaptations following the original poems. These novel works span movies, plays, and songs. The different adaptations take creative liberty, adding their own unique interpretations.
An image from the 16th century play by Xu Wei titled The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place.
For example, The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place, written in the 16th Century as a play, emphasizes Mulan’s place as a woman and took her out of the Northern Wei dynasty timeline. In this play, she unbinds her feet, a major symbol of her transformation from hiding herself.
The poster for the movie Mulan Joins the Army.
Many of these earlier adaptations altered the main theme of filial piety to nationalism. Notably, Mulan Joins the Army, a film adaptation, places Mulan in China during Japan’s occupation of China. This film contained significant nationalistic undertones. This film depicts Mulan driving out invaders, and instead of protecting her family, she seeks to protect her country.
Some of the most notable works that have influenced Disney’s movie adaptations are found below.
An image of a play where Mulan, the heroine, is wielding a sword.
The play The Female Mulan introduces a wholly new take on the revered story. In previous tellings, such as The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father’s Place or in “The Historical Romance of the Sui and Tang,” Mulan dies by suicide to either prove her loyalty to the emperor or escape becoming a concubine, respectively. The Female Mulan (16th century CE) introduced a novel ending to the previously tragic story. Rather than dying at the end, this play ends with Mulan’s eventual happiness and marriage. This rather revolutionary play also added Mulan’s surname, Hua, which means flower.
These many works paved the way for the most recent film adaptations, Disney’s 1998 Mulan and their 2020 live-action Mulan.
Mulan: Expanding the Heroine’s Story
Although the most recent Disney Mulan was released in 2020, the original Disney take on the historical story first appeared in 1998. This 1998 version had several new elements that the 2020 Mulan eventually moved away from. This 1998 Mulan introduced the story to a wider audience, so its interpretation is the major focus.
Mulan (1998) and its Musical Interpretations
The Mulan (1998) film poster.
The creators of this movie chose to turn this into a musical, possibly paying homage to the original art form of a poem, ballad, or song. There are numerous songs in the movie that emphasize key details of the story and make the film unique, catering to a new, younger audience.
The film starts with Mulan, the main character, starting a very important day. She is meeting her matchmaker and is extremely nervous. She allows her mother and grandmother to prepare her for this meeting, but her time with the matchmaker does not go as planned. This first song seeks to portray Mulan as a feminine, beautiful character. She is doing her duty of bringing honor to her family, so the film delves deeper into the original ideas of filial piety. With this song, the audience begins to understand the place and “duty” of women in this era of China.
A girl can bring her family Great honor in one way By striking a good match And this could be the day Men want girls with good taste Calm Obedient With good breeding And a tiny waist You'll bring honor to us all
The next major song depicts Mulan in despair after she fails to make a good impression on the matchmaker. She laments that she can not be a good wife. The songwriters and creators likely meant for this song to represent a large number of young women who weren’t able to fit themselves into the strict role of “good daughter.” They most likely wanted to give a voice to women forgotten, not only in China but internationally. This song, even in modern interpretations, represents the desire to be seen, valued, and worthy of respect and honor for being one’s authentic self. Mulan’s desires can reflect many, if not all, young girls today. The inclusion of this popular song creates new meaning beyond the original poem by asserting that even before she disguised herself as a man, she sought to be seen for who she truly was.
After the introductory day, Mulan’s father is called to the war, but it is revealed that he previously fought and was injured in another war. Mulan attempts to protect him but brings more shame to her family. She, privately devises a plan to go in his place, replacing her father’s invitation with her flower hair comb.
The directors, Barry Cook and Tony Bancroft, could have included this piece of symbolism to represent Mulan’s beautiful name. Mulan, meaning magnolia, and her surname, Hua, meaning flower, could both be represented with this simple inclusion of a flower comb.
A picture of Mushu.
The film also includes a beloved character named Mushu. Mushu is a small dragon who is inadvertently sent by Mulan’s ancestors to protect her after she leaves. Disney is an American company; therefore, Mulan most likely targeted the American people as the main audience. Mushu becomes a child-friendly character that represents an undeniably popular Chinese symbol. He is easy to love and gives the story a debatably more “Chinese” feel.
Mulan’s new comrades, from left to right, Ling, Yao, and Chien Po.
With Mushu by her side, Mulan begins training with the army, where she meets three other soldiers. These soldiers represent her “comrades” as referenced in the original Ballad of Mulan.
Mulan then meets Shang, the new general of the army, after his father passes in battle. She and Shang have a rocky relationship at the start, but soon, Mulan gains his respect with her transition to a strong soldier. The movie uses the song “I’ll Make a Man Out of You” to describe her improvement as a soldier. Where the original poem described Mulan’s journey to being a soldier with how she bought what she needed, the film shows Mulan’s transformation in music.
Mulan goes on to save the life of Shang, but she is found to be a woman. The film deliberately exposes her and denotes that she should be killed according to the law. Shang chooses not to kill her. With this mercy, Mulan could return home, but she chooses to fight for the very country that could have killed her.
It is in her decision to save China despite being free to return home that draws on the previous adaptations that change Mulan’s intentions to nationalism and pride in her country. These previous works that shifted from filial piety to nationalism seep into this film adaptation as she tries to save China by herself, met with annoyance and distrust because of her gender.
In one of the most notable and empowering moments for Mulan, her comrades decide to take her advice and dress as women to get past the enemies and save the emperor.
Mulan and her friends, Chien Po, Yao, and Ling, dress as women to sneak into the Emperor’s palace.
The film introduces an entirely new idea to the story of Mulan by turning the transformation from woman to man on its head. Mulan comes up with a plan to save the Emperor, who was taken by the Huns, China’s enemies. Like the previous adaptations, this movie seeks to inspire women. One unique aspect that Mulan (1998) includes is highlighting her intellect. Not only does Mulan change her appearance, but she also begins using her knowledge and intuition to save China. She rejected the notion that her value came from her ability to be wed and embraced her skill, determination, and love for her country and her family.
The end of the movie draws on the poem’s ending. Mulan is granted much respect and honor from the Emperor himself and is offered a high position in the government. She declines and asks to be allowed to go home, which the Emperor gladly grants. The movie diverges from the poem when the Emperor gifts Mulan with the Emperor’s crest and the sword of the defeated leader of the Huns. The movie includes this exchange to give Mulan proof to show to her family her accomplishments.
The closing part of the movie takes inspiration from both the original poem and the play The Female Mulan. Mulan is welcomed home by her father, mother, and grandmother.
In a beautiful ending, her father welcomes her back with wide arms. The sword and Emperor’s crest are forgone because his daughter is safe and well. The movie adopts an optimistic ending rather than Mulan dying by suicide. It brings its origins to the original poem where Mulan is welcomed home by her family.
Similar to The Female Mulan, the ending of the movie also includes the possibility of a marriage between Mulan and General Shang. As opposed to previous works of the story of Mulan, the movie does not confirm that the two actually wed. Instead, the ending is left open. This allows for further women empowerment by arguing that marriage does not give women their worth and value. Mulan ends the story with immense honor and without a husband, and the ending solidifies this concept.
Reinterpretations and Novel Meanings
Mulan (1998) is laden with unique takes on the historic poem. The movie remains true to the original poem in many ways. The movie incorporates both ideas of filial piety and nationalism. The film brings aspects like Mulan’s horse and her family to life on the screen. It also incorporates her comrades and their understood support in the poem.
One of the major alterations the movie includes is when Mulan convinces her comrades to dress as women. Once dressed as women, they are treated as weaker and not seen as a threat. This allows them to successfully defeat the enemies and rescue the Emperor. This change showcases Mulan’s intelligence while proving to the entirety of China the power of women.
Another new interpretation the film adds is the idea that Mulan’s life is more important than the respect of the Emperor or nation. This movie indicates that family and filial piety supercedes one’s duty to his or her country. This idea is subtle, yet it seems rooted in the original poem prior to the subsequent adaptations. This is further supported when Mulan returns home rather than accept a respected government position.
The movie also chooses to depict femininity through personality traits like obedience, cooking ability, and gentleness, as well as physical traits like a “tiny waist.” Unlike in the poem, which only attributes weaving to a feminine character, the movie highlights several aspects that are considered feminine. This divergence and inclusion of more aspects gives the movie a wider range to define and constrict a woman. This calls for Mulan to overcome more than just an occupation throughout the movie.
Overall, Mulan (1998) pays ample respect to the original poem but still has room to portray the story in a new light. The role of women in China and their ability to break barriers remains nuanced, allowing for artistic interpretation and alterations whenever an adaptation is created. As women continue to achieve accomplishments unheard of before, The Ballad of Mulan will continue to encourage women and young girls in its original form and its adaptations.
Mulan teaches the next generation of girls to be strong and courageous.
丧 (sang), pronounced “sahng” in English, is a slang term popular in Chinese internet spaces used to comically represent a feeling of hopelessness or a nihilistic worldview. The term is often used ironically to satirize the sadness present in the population as a form of dark humor. It reflects the sense of burnout and pessimism towards the increasingly unfavorable circumstances for China’s youth due to higher levels of competition in the workforce and the increasing demands being put on young people.
Origins
The term “sang” was popularized by an online subculture of people who felt hopeless about the future and looked for ways to express their frustrations as a form of dark humor. The first notable instance of the sang type of humor in China was the Ge You slouching meme. The meme comes from a scene in the Chinese sitcom “I Love My Family” where actor Ge You’s character hopelessly slouches on a couch after losing his job. Ironically, the scene was meant to demonstrate how not to respond to difficult circumstances, but instead, many in the soon-to-be sang subculture used the image of Ge You as a way to express their feelings of pessimism due to increased competition in academia and the job market as well as the lowered standard of living for many Chinese youths. The image was reposted on the internet, often accompanied by text that said things like “Why work when I can just lie around all day”, “No dreams, no pain”, and other dark but entertaining statements.
Above is the infamous image of actor Ge You slouching
The sang mindset spread quickly thereafter and was captured in several popular songs such as 我的滑板鞋 (My Skate Shoes) by Hua Chenyu, which featured an upbeat tune juxtaposed by depressing, sad lyrics. In late 2019, China became the first country to experience an outbreak of the Coronavirus, which only further fueled the growth of the sang subculture as the lockdowns and loss of social interaction led to increased feelings of sadness and depression. “Sang” was popularized as a slang word for those looking to express their frustrations surrounding their circumstances in a cynical but humorous manner, and was often used in memes similar to the one of Ge You slouching.
Below is the aforementioned song:
What Does Sang Culture Tell Us About China?
The sadness and hopelessness seen in sang culture reveal a lot about how China’s youth population views their ability to be successful and live a fulfilling life.
According to the 2023 study “The Influence of the Development of Sang Culture on Chinese Youth” by researcher Xinyi Huang, a significant catalyst for the growth of the sang subculture is the increased competition in job markets and academic environments. The increase in the number of people in China and the increased cost of living that have come with the change of the millennium have made it so that better opportunities are available to a much smaller number of people. The result of this is that many people find upward social mobility very difficult, if not impossible. Sang humor is a way for many of these people to vent and express their frustrations with the world. This is very interesting as it shows that rather than outright rebelling, much of China’s disgruntled youth population is finding a way to accept their circumstances through ironic dark humor.
Above is an example of what a sang meme may look like
The rise of the sang subculture also reveals a lot about how the younger generation in China is using the internet in new, unseen ways in China. The rise of sang humor as a form of coping with the difficult circumstances present for China’s youth shows an increasing interest in the use of the internet as a coping mechanism for difficult emotional experiences. It is not always easy for youth to be able to make their dissatisfaction with society known in China, as there is no guarantee of free speech, and criticism of the leadership in the country could lead to repercussions. The Chinese authorities have taken note of the pessimistic attitude many of the youth have on the internet, but it’s unlikely that memes of the sang variety will lead to persecution. The youth can use the internet and sang humor as a way to find emotional support with their peers without the risk of punishment for speaking out, which is something that has rarely been seen when it comes to internet use in China.
How Sang Culture Reflects Traditional Chinese Philosophy
Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of the sang subculture is how it relates to the traditional Chinese guiding philosophies of Daoism and Confucianism.
As scholars Tan and Cheng argue in their 2020 study “Sang Subculture in Post-Reform China” sang humor is not a rebellion by the youth in that they are actively fighting against the way society is progressing, it’s more of a large-scale disillusionment with the ideas and expectations that have historically been present within Chinese society. This can be seen in how sang humor is very contradictory to the ideas of Confucianism. The people who participate in sang humor reject the heavy emphasis on 君子 (junzi), the drive for self-cultivation, and the acceptance of responsibility asked by Confucianism. Instead, they accept that merely surviving is enough, and that trying to have anything more is unattainable. Rather than fighting for their dreams and aspirations, they survive through apathy.
On the other hand, sang culture and humor are aligned well with some of the ideas of Daoism. Notably, the Daoist idea of 无为 (wu wei) fits in very well with sang culture as it emphasizes the ideas of non-action as well as a detachment from ambition and material gains. Sang culture aligns with this idea because it largely rejects ambition and action in the face of adversity, instead embracing circumstance and accepting reality.
Conclusion
Ultimately, sang culture marks a new shifting attitude in China’s youth population. It is odd in that the attitudes Chinese youths are expressing reject many teachings present in traditional Chinese philosophy. It is a trend that likely will continue to gain traction if economic circumstances in China do not improve. If this large-scale apathy continues to manifest in more of the population, it may pose a serious threat to the future of China’s workforce. It speaks volumes to the resilience of the youths of China that they have found a way to cope with the difficult circumstances they’ve found themselves in.
Works Cited
Tan, K Cohen, and Shuxin Cheng. “Sang Subculture in Post-Reform China.” Global Media and China, vol. 5, no. 1, 20 Feb. 2020, pp. 86–99, https://doi.org/10.1177/2059436420904459. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
Huang, Xinyi, et al. “The Influence of the Development of Sang Culture on Chinese Youth.” Communications in Humanities Research, vol. 6, no. 1, 14 Sept. 2023, pp. 130–142, https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7064/6/20230162. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
Zhu, Ying, and Junqi Peng. “From Diaosi to Sang to Tangping: The Chinese DST Youth Subculture Online.” Global Storytelling, vol. 3, no. 2, 26 Feb. 2024, https://doi.org/10.3998/gs.5304. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
躺平 (tǎng píng) translated directly means to lie flat. For example, the sentence “幫病人躺平” translates to “help the patient lie [down] flat”. In recent years, this term has become very popular among Chinese netizens. 躺平 has adopted a new meaning among youth in China; to just lay back, do nothing, and remove themselves from the pressures of society. The term 躺平 gained popularity among Chinese internet users starting around 2021. The term quickly blew up, with many internet users creating groups to talk about the 躺平 lifestyle and many people began to sell merchandise with the term on it. However, the term was quickly criticized by the Chinese government, and many groups on social networking sites relating to 躺平 were removed. Critics of the 躺平 movement in China has labelled people that use this term as “lazy”.
“It’s more free, you aren’t limited to what you study. My time can be used for what I want to do.” “We are 躺平, not beggars.”
Contemporary Work Culture
The Concept of the Iron Rice Bowl (鐵飯碗)
To understand contemporary Chinese work culture, it is important to explore the idea of the 鐵飯碗, or iron rice bowl. When the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was first established, 毛澤東 (Mao ZeDong) used a planned economy for the nation. In this economy, people would be assigned jobs by the government. These jobs would include lifelong employment as well as other benefits such as healthcare. Essentially, the freedom of choice was sacrificed for job stability. This was a very stable employment, and thus coined the term 鐵飯碗. This system would continue for about 50 years until 鄧小平’s (Deng XiaoPing) period of reformation and opening up (改革開放). During this period, the Chinese economy shifted towards a market economy, and many state-owned enterprises would be privatized. This caused mass layoffs (下崗) in China; about 34 million workers were laid off between 1995-2001, and the unemployment rate reached to more than 10% (about the same as the 2008 Great Recession). This was known as the breaking of the iron rice bowl (打破鐵飯碗). Following these mass layoffs, many struggled to find new employment for various reasons such as age and lack of experience. Additionally, these mass layoffs were very sudden unexpected. Since the 鐵飯碗 jobs were thought to be very stable, many people were not prepared, and few people had savings.
A man on the side of the road looking for work in 1998.
These mass layoffs were very recent in Chinese history, and it still lives in the consciousness of many working adults in China today. As a result, it created a kind of trauma within Chinese society with many working people today working more and for longer hours in case of another mass layoff.
The 996 and 007 Work Schedules
Headline: Overworked for a year and gained 20kg; Helpless woman: Young girl turned into a fat auntie
In the United States, the most common work schedule is the 9 to 5, or 9:00am to 5:00pm for 5 days a week. In China, the work week is almost doubled under the 996 work schedule (996工作制度). This work schedule refers to working from 9:00am to 9:00pm for 6 days a week. Additionally, many people also work overtime (加班) on top of the 996 work schedule. In recent years, a new work schedule has arisen: 007. This work schedule refers to working 24 hours, 7 days a week. This kind of work schedule is very unhealthy both physically and mentally to works with many experience burn out after a few years.
The video below by VICE Asia gives a lot of insight into the 996 work culture in China.
It is important to note that there is a labor surplus in China, meaning that there are not enough jobs for the population. This labor surplus creates an environment where many workers feel that they can be replaced easily. This also creates a “rat race” where people are constantly competing with each other by working more and more. Considering the job insecurity faced by the people during the breaking of the iron rice bowl, it is easy to understand why many people continue to work under these conditions. In their minds, they do not have another option.
A career fair at Tsinghua University (清華大學), one of the top universities in China.
White Collar vs Blue Collar
For many Chinese, there is a hierarchy in what job you have: white collar jobs (白領工作) are usually seen as having a higher status than blue collar jobs (藍領工作). However, a recent phenomenon is flipping this hierarchy on its head. Many Chinese youth are fed up with the stressful life of white-collar work and have turned to an alternative: blue-collar work. Despite being “lower” in the job hierarchy, many youth find blue-collar work liberating as there is not as much competition and the ability to choose their own working hours.
Significance
躺平 reflects a growing disdain for the toxic work culture that exists, and a growing resistance against the exploitation of workers in China. While 躺平 is most directly related to the work culture in China, it is also shows the rejection of societal pressures in China as a whole such as getting married, having children, and owning a home. The term 躺平 may just translate to lie down, but to many youth in China, it embodies the struggles and resistance against involution found in the work culture found in contemporary China.
Explore the rise of the internet slang term ‘内卷’ (nèi juǎn / involution) — a powerful expression of burnout, overcompetition, and stagnation among Chinese youth. From its academic origins to viral memes and social commentary, this site examines how this keyword reflects deeper anxieties about success, pressure, and modern life in China’s hypercompetitive society.
Introduction
Students during a weekend study session at Mianyang Nanshan Experimental High School, June 2020.
Picture this: students staying up all night to rewrite essays not for better grades — but to keep up with their peers doing the same. Or job applicants padding resumes with master’s degrees for entry-level jobs.
This is referred to as ‘内卷’, or “involution,” a slang term to describe the burnout, endless competition, and feeling of going nowhere that many Chinese people — especially youth — experience today.
But involution isn’t just an internet trend; rather, it’s a reflection of deep social anxieties in modern China. In a system that rewards constant overachievement without guaranteeing upward mobility, many feel stuck in a loop of doing more for less. As the term gained popularity online, it quickly evolved into a symbol of frustration, critique, and even quiet rebellion.
To fully understand the rise of ‘内卷,’ we need to trace its origins — not just in internet slang, but in academic theory, social conditions, and the pressures shaping everyday life for millions of students and workers.
Origins and Social Context
The term 内卷 (nèi juǎn), or involution, originally comes from anthropology. American scholar Clifford Geertz used it to describe a paradox in agricultural labor: farmers put in more effort year after year without seeing an increase in output. In other words, people were working harder but not producing more.
In recent years, Chinese netizens adopted the term to describe a modern reality: grinding endlessly in schools and workplaces, not for genuine improvement, but simply to keep up. It first gained traction around 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, as discussions about work-life balance, academic pressure, and youth burnout surged on social media platforms like Weibo and Zhihu.
“为什么要卷我” — “Why must you involute me?”
This viral meme captures the despair of being dragged into relentless competition. Often used humorously, it reflects the emotional exhaustion felt by students and workers who feel trapped in a race.
China’s 996 work culture (working from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m., six days a week) became a major source of frustration. Young tech workers began joking that they weren’t climbing a ladder — they were running on a treadmill. At the same time, students felt suffocated by increasingly intense competition and pressure to succeed academically. Even kindergarten admission became a race, with parents enrolling their toddlers in coding bootcamps.
Workers at a Chinese tech company taking a lunchtime nap.
In this context, ‘内卷’ became a shorthand for something bigger than stress — it captured the emotional toll of a hypercompetitive society, where working harder doesn’t mean getting ahead, and opting out can feel like failure. There is no real reward, no rest, and no exit.
How ‘内卷’ Is Used Online
While 内卷 started as a sociological term, it quickly evolved into everyday internet slang used by students, office workers, and meme-makers alike. On platforms like Weibo, Zhihu, and Bilibili, netizens began using the term to describe their own experiences of pointless competition, often with humor and sarcasm.
One of the most viral uses of the term came from a photo of a student from Tsinghua University, one of China’s top universities, operating his laptop while commuting by bike.
Photo of a Tsinghua University student operating his laptop while riding a bike.
Another example that resonated with students was the trend of pulling all-nighters to match the efforts of peers who were also overworking. The attitude became: “If I don’t push myself, someone else will outdo me.” This cycle of effort without payoff is the essence of digital involution.
Popular slang phrases have emerged from this culture, including ‘卷王,‘ meaning “involution king,” which is used sarcastically for people who go overboard in trying to one-up others. The student pictured earlier was crowned “Tsinghua Involution King,” for example.
Although often framed with humor, these memes and phrases reflect serious concerns. Through jokes, sarcastic posts, and relatable images, netizens are expressing their stress and exposing the flaws in a system where endless effort no longer guarantees success.
Cultural Significance + Societal Impact
At its core, 内卷 (involution) is more than a trending buzzword — it’s a cultural diagnosis. For many young people in China, especially students and recent graduates, the word captures the emotional weight of living in a hypercompetitive society.
In earlier generations, upward mobility felt more attainable. Education was a clear path to success, and hard work was often enough to improve one’s circumstances. But today, despite rising levels of education, housing remains unaffordable, jobs are harder to secure, and the promise of a “better life” feels increasingly out of reach. Involution reflects this shift: people are still working hard, but they’re running in place rather than moving forward.
One Weibo user wrote:
“We study to get into a good school, then we study harder to survive in it. We graduate, only to find out we have to compete even more in job hunting. Is there a finish line?”
Another user approached this sense of burnout with sarcasm:
“Today I woke up at 5 a.m. to start work early, only to find three colleagues already online. I guess I’m not the ‘卷王‘ after all.”
The term also speaks to a deeper generational divide. Parents often encourage and pressure their children to push harder, believing success comes from discipline and sacrifice. But Gen Z, more digitally connected and mentally exhausted, has begun to question whether that mindset is sustainable. For them, “involuting” is a trap, not a virtue.
This disillusionment has sparked new forms of expression online. While some young people mock involution through memes, others respond by embracing alternate values. Movements like ‘躺平’ (lying flat) advocate for a slower, minimalist lifestyle, rejecting relentless hard work.
Even in workplaces, involution has sparked debate. Some companies now advertise “anti-involution” benefits, such as 4.5-day workweeks or no-overtime policies, to attract young talent. Yet these efforts often feel like surface-level fixes in a system still driven by status, performance, and appearances.
In this sense, ‘内卷’ reflects larger questions about what success means in modern China. It challenges the belief that more input always results in more output. It also raises uncomfortable questions: If the system demands constant competition just to survive, can anyone truly thrive?
Conclusion
‘内卷’ began as a term for agricultural stagnation, but it has grown into one of the most emotionally resonant expressions in contemporary Chinese internet culture. What makes it so powerful is not just its critique of overworking or competition — it’s how relatable it is. Whether in classrooms, offices, or even on social media, people recognize the feeling of doing more and more while getting less in return.
Through this single term, young people have found a way to voice their frustrations and poke fun at their reality. Memes, slang, and viral posts may seem like small acts, but together they point to something bigger: a generation navigating the tension between personal ambition and systemic limitations.
As involution continues to evolve, it leaves us with a question: If success no longer has a clear path, what does it mean to live well in modern China?
Ne Zha is a legendary character from the 16th century Chinese novel Fengshen Yanyi (The Investiture of the Gods), which combined history and mythology. Ne Zha, who was initially portrayed as a disobedient child born in an unusual situation, battles against the Dragon King and other oppressive powers. This project examines how the character has been reimagined for modern audiences by contrasting that traditional narrative with its contemporary reinterpretation in Ne Zha 2.
One of the best-known Chinese mythological characters is Nezha. He did not enter the world in the usual manner during the Shang dynasty. Instead, his mother gave birth to a large ball of flesh after more than three years’ gestation. When his father, General Li Jing, cut it open because he believed it was a monster, Nezha, already a walking, talking boy, jump out!
Nezha had a forceful personality and special abilities. He once unwittingly woke the Dragon King of the East Sea while cooling off in a river. This caused a battle in which Nezha killed Ao Bing, the son of the Dragon King. The Dragon Kings were so enraged that they threatened to flood Nezha’s hometown. Nezha killed himself and returned his body to his parents as a way of repentance in order to save his village and family. Then, Nezha asked his mother in a dream to build a temple for his ghost. The temple became highly popular after she secretly constructed it. However, his father, still angry at all the disasters Nezha had caused, destroyed the temple when he found out. Nezha later sought revenge for that.
Fortunately, the teacher of Nezha used lotus roots to build him a new body and brought him back to life. Nezha continued to battle his father when he gave him some awesome new weapons. Nezha eventually reconciled with his father who became the Pagoda-Wielding Heavenly King with the help of powerful gods. Nezha, in the face of injustice and self-denial for the benefit of the community, became the Chinese legendary hero in spite of his stormy life.
Global Retelling: Ne Zha 2.
How Ne Zha 2 Reinterprets the Myth
When Nezha 2 was released, it attracted a large number of audiences with its unique modification and innovation. It is no longer a simple copy of the original story with modern animation effects. This movie is trying express Nezha’s story from a more down-to-earth and relatable approach as the characters from the original story were too noble and unrealistically out of touch with reality.
In this movie, Nezha is no longer the little hero who was born with justice, but has become a little devil who is the reincarnation of a magic pill. His parents, Li Jing and Madam Yin, have been worried about him. They were afraid of that he cannot be accepted by the people. Nezha has been locked up in their house since he was a child and cannot go out, which makes his character rebellious and lonely. And Ao Bing is no longer the simple third prince of the East China Sea. He has become the reincarnation of a spirit bead and shoulders the responsibility of revitalizing the dragon clan.
Nezha and Ao Bing, who were pure enemies in the original story, have become both enemies and friends in the movie. The interaction and emotional entanglement between them have become a major twist of the movie. The plot of the movie is also very different from the original. The reason why Nezha caused trouble in the sea was no longer a simple conflict caused by him cooling off, but because his identity as a magic pill was misunderstood by everyone, and his inner loneliness and anger made him vent at the seaside, thus causing a conflict with the dragon clan.
Moreover, many new characters and plots were added to the movie, such as the villain Shen Gongbao, whose conspiracy and tricks promoted the development of the whole story. There was also the battle between Nezha and Ao Bing at the birthday banquet, which made the audience feel very satisfied about their fighting scene thanks to the modern animation technologies and 3D visual effects.
Critiques from the old audience
In the minds of old audiences, Nezha is the innocent and righteous little hero. Every action and expression of his is cute. But in Nezha 2, Nezha becomes a little devil with foul language and extremely weird behavior. Although this image has its unique charm, it is really hard to accept for the audience who grew up watching the old version of Nezha.
In the original novel, the plot of Nezha making trouble in the sea is simple and direct. It is because he disturbed the East China Sea by taking a bath, and he had a conflict with Ao Bing, and then killed Ao Bing. But in the new movie, too many complex backgrounds and character relationships are added. Old audiences feel that such an adaptation makes an originally simple and pure story too complicated. Moreover, the relationship between Nezha and Ao Bing in the movie has changed from hostility to both enemy and friend, which makes many old audiences difficult to understand. In their opinion, Nezha and Ao Bing are natural enemies, and this relationship cannot be easily changed, just like cats and mice. If you suddenly make them good friends, you always feel that something is wrong.
Some of Nezha’s lines in the movie are full of modern Internet slang. Although they sound funny, they always feel out of place with that mythological era.
Impact on young and global audiences
From the perspective of the film industry, adapting classic works is a common way of creation. It can give new vitality to old stories and attract more audiences of different ages and backgrounds. Nezha 2 is a good example. It successfully attracted a large number of young audiences to the cinema through a unique adaptation. These young audiences may not be familiar with the original story Fengsheng Yanyi, but through this movie, they have become interested in the story of Nezha, and thus have the possibility to read the original novel, which has a positive effect on spreading Chinese culture.
Moreover, adaptation also gives creators more room to play. They can innovate and adjust the story according to the preferences and market needs of the current audience. In Nezha 2, the creators added a lot of modern themes such as family affection, friendship, and self-identity to make this ancient myth closer to the lives of modern people. For example, the complex emotions between Nezha and his parents, he longed for his parents’ recognition, and his parents tried their best to protect him. This portrayal of family affection resonated with many audiences. There is also the friendship between Nezha and Ao Bing. When facing the challenges of fate, they understand and support each other, and this friendship is also touching.
The novel is set in 1126, after the Song Dynasty had lost much of its territory due to the unprepared emperor. The emperor at the time was focused on his own pursuits rather than ruling. The prominence of government corruption was greatly impacting peoples lives.
“To render justice for the heaven and save the people”
The group of bandits comes together to bring justice in the face of unjust officials. The bandits challenge corrupt officials and other oppressive government forces.
Liangshan Marsh
In the novel, a group of 108 outlaws set up a stronghold in a fictional location called the “Liangshan Marsh”. The outlaws come from all different walks of life, with each character bringing unique backstories and motivations behind their choices.
Rise to Power and Reintegration
The bandits holding government figures accountable leads to a significant growth in the bandits’ political power. The bandits continue on their justice journey until the conclusion of the novel when the bandits are offered amnesty and governmental positions.
What the film covers:
Water Margin by the Shaw Brothers covers one of the more notable 4 chapters of the original novel, chapters 64 through 68. The plot covers how the “Jade Unicorn” Lu Junyi became one of the bandits.
The film starts with an ambush by Shi Wengong on the leader of the bandits, Chao Gai, which ends up killing him. The two bandits that end up as the leaders of the Bandits, Song Jiang and Wu Yong, decide to try and avenge Chao Gai’s death. To properly avenge Chao Gai’s death, they need a skilled martial artist, so they seek out Lu Junyi, who is the former student of Shi Wengong, and his servant Yan Qing.
To seek out Lu Junyi, Wu Yong, disguises himself as a fortune teller and sneaks into the Northern Capital with his assistant Li Kui. Wu Yong, maintaining his fortune teller guise, tells Lu Junyi he must travel southeast to avoid personal tragedy. Yan Qing can see through the fortune teller’s disguise and the pair’s fight, with Wu Yong and Li Kui handily losing. Wu Yong managed to talk Lu Junyi into releasing them, but their presence in the capital was reported to the authorities by Li Gu, who also happens to be having an affair with Lu Junyi’s wife. Li Gu reports the bandits and their release as a way to frame Lu Junyi and steal his money. Lu Junyi’s assistant, Yan Qing, then embarks on a journey to try and free Lu Junyi. Along the way, he meets another bandit, Shi Xiu, who also tries to free Lu Junyi. Eventually, Yan Qing gathers a large group of Liangshan bandits, and through well-planned strategic attacks, can free Lu Junyi. Lu Junyi then kill the man who was sleeping with his wife, and his assistant kills his wife.
The outlaws then leave the northern capital, and upon their exit, run into She Wengong. There is a large final battle scene which leaves She Wengong gravely injured. Upon seeing Lu Junyi as the new leader of the Liangshan bandits, She Wengong commits suicide, and the bandits return to their stronghold.
Character List:
Lu Junyi (Talent martial artist the bandits are trying to recruit)
Yan Qing (Servant or student of Lu Yunji)
Chao Gai (Former leader of the Bandits)
Shi Wengong (Villain)
Song Jiang (Interim leader of Bandits)
Wu Yong (Interim leader and face fortune teller)
Li Kui (Wu Yong’s servant)
Li Gu (Adulator)
Shi Xiu (Bandit)
Li Chong (Bandit)
Hu Sanniang (Bandit)
Wu Song (Bandit)
Film Review and Analysis:
Without having read the full original novel, the film Water Margin, released by the Shaw Brothers in 1972, is entertaining. While only covering four chapters of the novel, the film feels complete (maybe even a little long). Each character has a distinct personality, almost in a caricature-like sense. The individual traits are emphasized through the character choices and facial expressions. The expressions come across as particularly exaggerated, which can take away from scenes that may otherwise be serious. Despite the goofiness, the larger-than-life personalities are engaging. The film brings the characters’ personalities to the forefront in a way a novel doesn’t quite have to ability to.
A unique feature of the film is the scale. The film has a large cast, using almost all actors employed by the Shaw brothers at the time. Almost all the actors engaged in martial arts choreography. The film starts and ends with a large fight scene that features a series of one-on-one duels. The middle of the film has a series of martial arts fights that are on the scale of ten versus two. The choreography for both types of fight scenes is precise and well portrayed. The film moves through a series of locations, from city to countryside, which adds to the perception of a large world. The film’s scale was unique for the time and created the foundation for future blockbusters.
The number of characters made the beginning of the film confusing for the casual viewer. Many characters are only briefly shown before the plot quickly starts bouncing between characters and locations. The quick dive into the plots helps build a rich storyline, that keeps the viewers attention. The movie emphasizes the journey, rather than the movie being a means to an end. The focus on the story was an innovative idea at the time of production.
Another fascinating aspect of the film is the music and sound effect choices. The sound effects don’t quite make sense with the action scenes, which adds a comedic feeling to the action shots. The music choices also stand out because it’s a unique blend of traditional Chinese sound and Western music. Bringing a more culturally mixed set of music choices changed the sound of the film and gave a modern feel to a classic storyline. The music choices, along with the release by a massive film company, helped spread the Water Margin story beyond China and increased the audience.
The film stays relatively true to the storyline in the novel, which was made possible by the small portion of the text the film was aiming to cover. The do to the feature explained previously, the film takes on a more humorous and entertaining note than the novel and focuses more on entertainment than the messaging of average people fighting a corrupt government. The movie was a good basis to expand upon and build the foundations for future adaptations. The film does a good job of giving all the individual characters personality, which is an important feature of the novel. The director took some creative liberty in building the personalities of the characters through the actor selections and the screenwriting. As one of the earliest film adaptations of Water Margin, the film did a good job of highlighting what could be possible using the stories and characters from the novel.
Other Adaptations of Water Margin:
(Movie )All Men Are Bothers – Shaw Brothers (Sequel to Water Margin)
(TV) The Water Margin 1998 – CCTV
(Video Game) Suikoden 1995 – Konami
What Other viewers had to say:
“I get the feeling that Chang Che just absolutely loves these original books, to the point where he simply cannot adapt them for shit” – threepenny (Letterbox)
“So if you want to see virtually ALL of your early Shaw Brothers favorites in one movie, The Water Margin will treat you right.” – Will (Silver Emulsion Film Reviews)
Brief History of the Shaw Brothers:
The Shaw Brothers were a wildly successful Hong Kong-based Film company. The company was founded in 1920, and initially they were purchasing cinemas. The Shaw Brothers began movie-making in 1925. In 1961 they created the Movietown studio in Hong Kong, which at the time was the biggest privately owned studio. The Show brothers remained prominent filmmakers through the 70s and 80s. Throughout the organization’s time, the Shaw Brothers produced over a thousand films.
The company worked with many prominent actors and directors of the era. The company produced a wide range of genres, but the Shaw Brothers are most widely known for their martial arts action movies. The company was one of the first big-budget action studios, and the company structure served as an example for the now popular style that is Hollywood blockbusters.
References
Anchi Hoh. (2017, July 13). The Story of Water Margin (水滸傳) | 4 Corners of the World: International Collections and Studies at the Library of Congress. Loc.gov. https://blogs.loc.gov/international-collections/2017/07/the-story-of-water-margin-%E6%B0%B4%E6%BB%B8%E5%82%B3/
Shaw Scope: A History of the Shaw Bros. Studio – Harvard Film Archive. (2008, May 30). Harvard Film Archive. https://harvardfilmarchive.org/programs/shaw-scope-a-history-of-the-shaw-bros-studio
The Water Margin (1972). (2025a). Letterboxd.com; Letterboxd. https://letterboxd.com/film/the-water-margin/
The Water Margin (1972). (2025b). IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069265/mediaviewer/rm4294774272/
Where to begin with the Shaw Brothers. (2021, December 21). BFI. https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-shaw-brothers
Will. (2013, September 13). The Water Margin (1972). Silver Emulsion Film Reviews. https://www.silveremulsion.com/2013/09/13/the-water-margin-1972/
