When we think of Chinese food today, spicy Sichuan hotpot, delicate Cantonese dim sum, and hearty Northern pork dumplings may come to mind. But beneath the surface lies hundreds, even thousands of years of culinary and agricultural traditions. China’s extensive history has reshaped what people grow, eat, and even value on their plates.
Since the 1960s, China’s agricultural development — and as a result, its food culture — has rapidly undergone profound changes. So how exactly has China’s food culture shifted — or remained the same — because of these changes? To understand these transformations and their influence in the modern day, we can examine significant historical events before China’s own Agricultural Revolution from the late 20th century to early 21st. National-level impacts on rural development had the ability to affect how people in the country perceived eating habits, traditions, and inevitably their entire food culture.
Traditional Agricultural and Culinary History Overview
In the past, traditional agriculture in China encompassed thorough, sustainable methods designed to maximize yields from limited land, a principle supported by Confucianism. Farmers used organic fertilizers like compost and animal waste, practiced crop rotation with wheat and millet to maintain soil health, and developed sophisticated irrigation systems such as canals and water wheels. Animal husbandry was less common, as most animals were reserved for labor. In southern China, warm and humid climates supported rice paddies and fish-rice farming systems, establishing rice as the primary grain. In the drier northern regions like the Guanzhong Plain, drought-resistant crops such as wheat and millet dominated, leading to the development of wheat-based foods like noodles and buns—a trend still exhibited today.
Historically, Chinese agriculture and food culture were deeply intertwined, with Confucian principles reinforcing this connection. Environmental factors limited the distribution of plant species, encouraging the specialization of certain crops and agricultural techniques. Food culture often reflected environmental realities, emphasizing balance and harmony as essential for efficiency and success in the fields. Confucian ideals of righteousness, wisdom, and respect for laborers helped facilitate this mindset.
For example, within food culture, Confucian principles encouraged the reduction of waste and respect for those who provided the resources to prepare a meal. Yuan Mei, an influential food writer and poet, expressed this idea in A Way of Eating:
“Tyrannical individuals are not empathetic to people’s labors, just as wasteful individuals care little about the value of things. From head to tail, all parts of a chicken, fish, goose, or duck are delicious in their own way. As such, there is no need to carve out the best part of something only to relegate the rest as waste.”
His philosophy often called for prioritizing the natural flavors of ingredients and balancing strong and light tastes to bring harmony to the meal. The idea of harmony with people and the environment was a common thread evident in both Chinese agricultural and culinary history.
China’s Green and Cultural Revolution
Following industrialization in the 20th century, many traditional agricultural practices and values began to be replaced by modern, mechanized processes. This shift, known globally as the Green Revolution, marked a period of rapid agricultural industrialization through improved mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and seed quality. A focus on efficiency led to the rise of processed foods and patterns of overconsumption, especially by the 1970s, shaping modern food culture in the United States and worldwide. In China, the Green Revolution’s impacts allowed the country to emerge as a global leader in agricultural production, though these changes did not take hold until the later 20th century. Before that, China underwent the Great Leap Forward (大跃进; Dàyuèjìn) in 1958 and the Cultural Revolution (文化大革命; Wénhuà Dàgémìng) in 1966 under Chairman Mao. In this section, these events are described to provide a background on changes in agricultural and culinary traditions during and after this time.
The Great Leap Forward was a period where Chinese citizens often experienced malnutrition and starvation, and a lack of gastronomic luxury. The Great Leap Forward sought to collectivize rural development through labor-intensive methods and communal farms (人民公社; Rénmín Gōngshè), rejecting ancient farming practices as “feudal” and inefficient. Individuals forfeited private property and pooled labor and income for self-sufficiency, but rapid resource diversion and monocropping led to widespread famine, economic disaster, and up to 20 million deaths.
The Cultural Revolution further disrupted agriculture and society, purging capitalist and counter-revolutionary ideas. High-ranking officials, professors, and artists were imprisoned, and citizens were forced to eradicate the “Four Olds” (四旧; sì jiù)—old customs, culture, habits, and ideas. Long-standing traditions like Confucianism, democracy, and traditional Chinese medicine were targeted as obstacles to Maoist socialism. As a result, technological advancement and scientific research stagnated, and experienced academics and professionals were persecuted. The video below provides insight on life during this time.
Agricultural development stalled under the commune system until reforms began after Mao’s death in 1976. From 1979 to 1984, the commune system was dismantled and replaced by the Household Responsibility System (HRS), which restored land-use rights to individual households. Building on these reforms, the early 2000s marked a new phase of China’s agricultural revolution. Programs like Comprehensive Agricultural Development (CAD) upgraded unproductive farmland. New subsidies for seeds, machinery, and conservation practices improved crop yields, and the elimination of agricultural taxes in 2006 increased rural incomes. Output value of the agricultural sector increased 590%, in comparable prices between 1980 and 2010. Animal husbandry, fruit and vegetable production, and fisheries experienced similar increases. As economic well-being rose, so did changes in food consumption patterns. The consumption of vegetables and meat, as well as dairy and eggs, increased. Grain consumption decreased drastically for the first time, as the population’s diets had been very dependent on rice, wheat, and starches previously. China’s agricultural shift, described by historian Philip Huang as a “hidden agricultural revolution,” was not only about producing more but about changing what was produced.
20th Century Agricultural and Culinary Traditions
These events had lasting impacts on both agricultural and culinary traditions. Previously, a connection between sustainability and respect for the environment characterized much of agricultural production in China. Similarly, culinary traditions were abundant yet modest in consumption, revolving around seasonality and harmony, a result of Confucian ideals. However, the rejection of the Four Olds and “feudal” farming practices flipped the narrative entirely. Communal farms and rigid production quotas often prioritized quantity over local ecological knowledge. Traditional practices like crop rotation were abandoned, and monocropping became widespread to maximize staple grain output. Rapid deforestation occurred to make room for new farmland. Rice and wheat were the primary crops grown in communal fields, and vegetables had to be grown in private household gardens to supplement diets and increase available space for grains. Meat was even more scarce.
NPR’s culinary segment, “The Salt,” interviewed Sasha Gong, the author of The Cultural Revolution Cookbook. “We were hungry, hungry all the time,” she said. “If we were lucky, we would have pork three times a year back then, for holidays.” People often waited hours in line for rations of 500 grams of oil for the entire month.
In terms of culinary culture, the hardships experienced during the Cultural Revolution left a profound psychological mark. Eating was often associated with survival, scarcity, and communal culture rather than enjoyment or tradition. Simple dishes such as boiled greens, sweet potato porridge, and steamed buns became staples. People relied on the seasonality of vegetables out of necessity rather than sustainability. Every part of an animal or vegetable was used: bones were simmered into broth, vegetable peelings were repurposed into stir-fries, and even the water used to boil meat was saved as soup. Sasha Gong recalled that during her childhood, “nothing was wasted,” and a single potato might be thinly shredded to stretch across an entire family.
Many traditional regional cuisines were suppressed or simplified to fit ideals of austerity. Interestingly, in China today, Cultural Revolution–themed restaurants have emerged as spaces where the memory of scarcity during these times are transformed into nostalgic, almost aesthetic consumption. These restaurants serve dishes once associated with communal lifestyles—wild grasses, pickled vegetables, coarse cornbread—as a way of both remembering hardship and celebrating the country’s rise from it. Survival foods now are symbols of perseverance and national pride.
The staff at Chongqing’s Old Base restaurant dress as Cultural Revolution-era “Red Guards.” (Thomas Arne Strand) via The Atlantic
These habits of simplicity, frugality, and maximizing resources are still ingrained into daily cooking practices. Many of these habits are still evident, though modern China enjoys far greater abundance. Nose-to-tail eating, valuing every part of an animal, and a strong appreciation for seasonal local produce remain central to Chinese cuisine. Extravagant banquets featuring an excess of dishes are now common—not only as signs of hospitality but possibly as symbolic rejections of a past defined by scarcity. At the same time, traditional comfort foods like noodles, dumplings, and porridge continue to represent security and resilience across generations.
Modern Day Impacts
Interestingly, the food culture shaped following the Cultural Revolution both contrasts with and reflects traditional Confucian attitudes. Confucian teachings emphasized moderation, seasonal harmony, and meals as expressions of moral order and social gratitude. Food was seen not only as nourishment but as a way to enact ethical principles such as respect for labor, gratitude toward nature, and restraint in consumption. In contrast, the Cultural Revolution introduced a utilitarian view of food, where meals prioritized caloric necessity over ritual, and traditional customs were cast aside as “feudal relics.” Yet despite these differences, both systems shared a commitment to frugality—Confucianism framed thrift as a moral duty, while the Cultural Revolution demanded it out of practicality and material necessity. So, though the feelings and rationale are different, there are similarities in traditional and modern attitudes towards food.
Contemporary Chinese food culture reflects a blend of these thoughts and ideals. The increase in economic wealth, agricultural production, and well-being in society means gastronomic luxuries are more common, and celebratory occasions with expensive foods are more popular. Regional cuisines, once suppressed or frowned upon, flourish now, renewing culinary creativity and harmony that was once traditionally valued. However, a deep-seated memory of resilience is intertwined with this respect for ingredients and natural balance. Today’s culinary culture in China often blends these legacies, proving the strength of identity and values that are associated with food, and memorializing the resourcefulness forged during one of the country’s most turbulent eras.
Sources:
- Barclay, Eliza. (19 Jan. 2012,). “Surviving China’s Cultural Revolution on Seasonal, Local Food.” NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/01/19/145456950/surviving-chinas-cultural-revolution-on-seasonal-local-food
- Cabouat, P. (2023). How the Great Leap Forward caused the Great Chinese Famine. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e9H8pxLe74I
- Cabral, L., Pandey, P. & Xu, X. (2022). Epic narratives of the Green Revolution in Brazil, China, and India. Agric Hum Values 39, 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-021-10241-x
- Eisenman, J. (2018, October 17). Red China’s Green Revolution: Technological innovation, institutional change, and economic development under the commune. Not Even Past. https://notevenpast.org/red-chinas-green-revolution-technological-innovation-institutional-change-and-economic-development-under-the-commune-by-joshua-eisenman-2018/
- Huang, P. C. C. (2016). China’s hidden agricultural revolution, 1980–2010, in historical and comparative perspective. Modern China, 42(4), 339–376. https://doi.org/10.1177/0097700415626137
- Tahelm, T. (2020). Emerging evidence of cultural differences linked to rice versus wheat agriculture. Current Opinion in Psychology, 32, 81-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.031
- Veeck, G., & Shui, W. (2011). China’s Quiet Agricultural Revolution: Policy and Programs of the New Millennium. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 52(2), 242–263. https://doi.org/10.2747/1539-7216.52.2.242
- Wu, S., Wei, Y., Head, B., Zhao, Yan., Hanna, S. (2019). The development of ancient Chinese agricultural and water technology from 8000 BC to 1911 AD. Palgrave Commun 5, 77. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0282-1
- Yuan, M. (2019). The way of eating: Yuan Mei’s manual of gastronomy (S. J. Chen, Ed.). Berkshire Publishing Group. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unomaha/detail.action?docID=5987854